DEPARTMENT OF

MECHATRONICS
ENGINEERING

An Assignment on
Transducer
MTE 1101
Mechatronic System

Submitted to Presented by
Prangon Das
MD. OHIDUL ISLAM Roll:2008035
Lecturer, Department Of Mechatronics
Engineering Department of Mechatronics Engineering, RUET
Rajshahi University Of Engineering &
Technology
What is Transducer?

A transducer is a physical device that converts

one form of energy into another.

A transducer is made of two parts;

A sensor
The sensor detects the change in the physical environment and generates a
non-electrical signal.
A signal conditioning unit.
The signal conditioning unit converts the signal into electrical form and also
amplifies, attenuate or process it into a readable electrical signal.
 Main Feature of Transducer

● It converts one form of energy into another.

● It is made of a sensor and a signal conditioning unit.
● It can convert non-electrical into electrical energy and vice versa.
● Its output can be directly interfaced with another system.
● A transducer has a complex signal conditioning circuit.
 Transducer Classification
01 Based on 02 Based on type of 03 based on the
power source output electrical principle
● Active transducers ● Analogue transducers Involved
They are also known as These transducers convert
self generating type the input physical ● Variable resistance
transducers. These phenomenon into an type
transducers develop their analogous output which ● Variable inductance
own voltage or current. is a continuous function of
● Passive time. type
transducers ● Digital transducers ● Variable capacitance
They are known as These transducers convert type
externally powered the input physical
phenomenon into an ● Voltage generating
transducers. These
transducers derive the electrical output which type
power required for the may be in the form of pulse. ● Voltage divider type
energy conversion from
an external power
source.
 01 Strain gauges

A strain gauge is a resistor used to measure strain on an

object.

Description
Strain Gauges are important geotechnical tools that measure
strain in underground cavities, tunnels, buildings, concrete,
masonry dams, bridges, and embedment in soil/concrete. etc.
The main purpose of a strain gauge is to indirectly determine
stress and its variation with time, quantitatively. Change in
stress is determined by multiplying the measured strain by
the modulus of elasticity.
Figure: A Strain Gauge
Specification: Applications of Strain Gauge
● Operational temperature(°C): - ● Stress on railway lines
196~+150°C ● Stresses on aircraft wing deflection
● Temperature compensation range(°C): ● Aircraft component testing
+10~+100°C ● Rotational strain on turbines, wheels, fans, propellers
● Bonding adhesive: CN, NP-50B, EB-2 and motors
● Backing: Special plastics ● Testing ships hulls
● Element: Cu-Ni alloy foil ● Testing structural components for bridges and
● Strain limit: 5% (50000×10⁻⁶ strain) buildings
● Fatigue life at room temperature: 1×10⁶ ● Automotive testing
(±1500×10⁻⁶strain)

Advantages of Strain Gauge Disadvantages of Strain Gauge

● Strain gauge comes in large variety or ● The installation of strain gauge is tricky and
shapes and sizes. requires professional assistance.
● They are inexpensive and affordable.
● Once the strain gauge is installed, it could
● Their configurations are extremely
accurate. only be used for a particular specimen. It cannot
● High measurement sensitivity and be
precision. removed or reused.
● Wide measurement range.
 Working Principle
The functioning of a strain gauge entirely depends on the
electrical resistivity of an object/conductor. When an object
gets stretched within its limits of elasticity and does not break
or buckle permanently, it becomes thinner and longer,
resulting in high electrical resistance. If an object is
compressed and does not deform, but, broadens and Figure 1 : A strain Gauge
shortens, results in decreased electrical resistance. The values
obtained after measuring the electrical resistance of a gauge
helps to understand the amount of stress-induced.
The excitation voltage is applied at the input terminals of a
gauge network, while the output is read at the output
terminals. Normally, these are connected to a load and are
likely to remain stable for longer periods, sometimes decades.
The glue used for gauges depends on the duration
of a measurement system – cyanoacrylate glue is suitable for
short term measurements and epoxy glue for long term
measurements.
Figure 2 : Working principle of a
strain gauge
 02 Thermistors
The thermistor is the type of thermal resistor whose
resistance
changes with the temperature.
A thermistor is a resistance thermometer, or a resistor whose resistance is dependent on temperature. The
term is a combination of “thermal” and “resistor”. It is made of metallic oxides, pressed into a bead, disk,
or cylindrical shape and then encapsulated with an impermeable material such as epoxy or glass.

Specification:
● Resistance at 25 degrees C: 10K +- 1%
● B-value (material constant) = 3950+- 1%
● Dissipation factor (loss-rate of energy of a mode of
oscillation)
δ th = (in air)approx.7.5mW/K
● Thermal cooling time constant <= (in air) 20
seconds
● Thermistor temperature range -55 °C to 125 °C Figure: A thermistors
 Applications of thermistors
● Digital thermometers (thermostats)
● Automotive applications (to measure oil and coolant temperatures in cars & trucks)
● Household appliances (like microwaves, fridges, and ovens)
● Rechargeable batteries (ensure the correct battery temperature is maintained)
● To measure the thermal conductivity of electrical materials
● Useful in many basic electronic circuits (e.g. as part of a beginner Arduino starter kit)
● Temperature compensation (i.e. maintain resistance to compensate for effects caused by changes in
temperature in another part of the circuit)

Advantages of thermistors Disadvantages of

● Durable thermistors
● Long lasting ● Nonlinear output
● Highly sensitive ● Limited temperature range
● Small size ● Slow response time
● Lowest cost
● Best for measuring single point
temperature
 Working Principle
When the ambient temperature of a thermistor
increases, its resistance decreases significantly.
Typically, for every 1oC rise in temperature, there will be
a 5% decrease in their resistance. So their sensitivity is
very high. In simple words we can say, they can observe
Figure 1 : Construction of
even a very small change in temperature which could
not be observed by a thermocouple or an RTD. This
thermistors
makes them very useful for the precision measurement
of temperature, control, and compensation. This is the
basic thermistor working principle. They can be used in
the temperature range of – 60oC to 300o They have
resistance in the range of 0.5 ohms to 0.75 M ohms.

Figure 2 : Working
principle of a
thermistors
 03 Photoconductive Cells
The photoconductive cell is a two terminal semiconductor device whose terminal
resistance will vary (linearly) with the intensity of the incident light.

Light striking the surface of a material can provide sufficient energy to cause electrons within the material to
break away from their atoms. Thus, free electrons and holes (charge carriers) are created within the material,
and consequently its resistance is reduced. This is known as the Photoconductive effect.

Specification:
● Vmax (VDC): 500 V
● Pmax (mW): 500
● Ambient temp(°C): -30~+70
● Spectral peak (nm): 550
● Light Resistance at 10Lux (KΩ): 5-10
● Dark Resistance (MΩ): 1
● Gamma value at 100-10Lux: 0.6
● Rise Time: 20
● Decaytime: 30
Figure: A photoconductive cell
 Applications of photoconductive
cell
● Camera Exposure Control
● Auto Slide Focus - dual cell
● Photocopy Machines - density of toner
● Colorimetric Test Equipment
● Densitometer
● Electronic Scales - dual cell
● Automatic Gain Control - modulated light source
● Automated Rear View Mirror

Advantages of photoconductive cell Disadvantages of photoconductive cell

● It mainly depends on the light, so its resistance will ● These are less responsive as compared to
be decreased once light drops on it & enhances in the phototransistors or photodiodes.
dark. ● When the Cadmium sulfide (CdS) is used in the
● These are cheap & available in different sizes & construction of a photoresistor, then it is dangerous to
shapes the atmosphere. Therefore they are accessible simply
● They need less power & voltage for their operation. in preferred countries.
● These are used to make simple circuits ● Once applied voltage increases the maximum
voltage then it will cause damage to the
photoconductor.
● Its response time is very slow like 10 sec or 100
milliseconds.
 Working Principle
Once the light ray strikes the surface of a photoconductive material then it provides enough energy to cause
electrons in the material to move away from their atoms. Therefore, free charge carriers like holes &
electrons can be created within the material, its resistance will be decreased. So this is called the
Photoconductive effect.

Figure 1 : Construction of Figure 2 : Working principle

photoconductive cell of a photoconductive cell
 04 Linear Variable Differential
Transformer (LVDT)
LVDT is a passive inductive transducer and is commonly employed to measure force
or weight, pressure and acceleration which depend on force ) in terms of the amount
and direction of displacement of an object.

An LVDT (linear variable differential transformer is an

electromechanical sensor used to convert mechanical
motion or vibrations, specifically rectilinear motion,
into a variable electrical current, voltage or electric
signals, and the reverse. Actuating mechanisms used
primarily for automatic control systems or as
mechanical motion sensors in measurement
technologies. The classification of electromechanical
transducers includes conversion principles or types of
output signals.
Figure: Linear variable differential
transformer
Specification: Advantages of LVDT
● Sensitivity for nominal measuring range: 270 mV/V ● Infinite resolution is present in LVDT
(bridge output per 1 V supply voltage) ● High output* LVDT gives High sensitivity
● Supply voltage: 5 Vrms ● Very good linearity
● Linearity error : 2% of the total range (related to the ● Ruggedness
± range limits of the transducer) ● LVDT Provides Less friction
● Carrier frequency: 3 to 5 kHz ● Low hysteresis
● Permissible environmental temperature: -20 to +120˚ ● LVDT gives Low power consumption.
C (-4 to 248˚ F)
● Temperature: Sensitivity 0.1% / K
● Nominal inductance: solenoid plunger in middle
position: 20 + 20 mH maximum displacement: 7 + 26
mH 50%, displacement: 13 + 26 mH ,driven out: 5 + Disadvantages of LVDT
5mH ● Very high displacement is required for
● Capacitance: 250 pF (each winding) generating high voltages.
● Standard accessories: connector: cannon MS ● Shielding is required since it is sensitive to
3106E10SL-3S Solenoid plunger with M3 threaded rod magnetic field.
Applications of LVDT ● The performance of the transducer gets
● LVDT is used to measure displacement ranging affected by vibrations
from fraction millimeter to centimeter. ● Its is greatly affected by temperature changes.
● Acting as a secondary transducer, LVDT can be
used as a device to measure force, weight and
pressure, etc..
 Working principle
The working of LVDT is based on the principle of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction that states that “the net induced emf in the circuit is directly proportional
to the rate of change of magnetic flux across the circuit, and the magnetic flux of
the coil wounded with wires can be changed by moving a bar magnet through the
coil.”As the primary winding of the LVDT is connected to the AC power supply, the
alternating magnetic field is produced in the primary winding, which results in the
induced emf the secondary windings. Let us assume that the induced voltages in
the secondary windings S1 and S2 be E1 and E2 respectively. Now, according to
Faraday’s Law, the rate of change of magnetic flux, i.e., dØ/dt is directly
proportional to the magnitude of induced emf’s, i.e., E1 and E2. Hence, the induced
emf in the secondary windings will be more if the value of ‘dt’ will be low (dØ/dt ∝
E1 and E2), and the low value of ‘dt’ implies that the soft iron core present inside
the LVDT is moving faster. Thus, emf of large magnitude will induce in the
secondary windings S1 and S2 if the movement of the core is faster inside the Figure: Working principle of
LVDT.
Linear variable differential
As we have discussed in the construction above that both the secondary winding
transformer
S1 and S2 are connected in series with each other but in opposite phases, due to
this phase opposition connection, the total output voltage (Eo) in the circuit will be
given by,
E0= E1 -E2
 05 Reluctance pick-up
These cells convert weight or force into electrical outputs which are provided by the strain
gauges.
Light striking the surface of a material can provide sufficient energy to cause electrons within the material to
break away from their atoms. Thus, free electrons and holes (charge carriers) are created within the material,
and consequently its resistance is reduced. This is known as the Photoconductive effect.

Specification:
● Resistance: 40 To 2000 Ohms
● Target: Ferrous Material,Single tooth or slot to 32
pitch gear tooth
● Air gap: 0.005" To 0.150" (0.126mm to 3.807mm)
● Speed Range: 30 to 1000 Inch/Sec.
● Output Range (VPP): 100 To 200 Vpp.
● Operating Temperature: -40° F to + 221° F (-20°C
to 105°C)
Optional : -40°F to + 302°F (-40°C to 150°C) Figure: A Reluctance pick-up
 Applications of reluctance pick-
up
● Flow metering
● Engine and turbo speed
● Anti-lock braking systems (ABS)
● Traction Control systems
● Conveyor / Process speed
● Oily, wet, and harsh environments
● High temperature / high-pressure
Advantages of reluctance pick-up
Disadvantages of reluctance pick-
● They don’t need external power supply
up
● Low cost
● Difficult to measure low speeds
● Light weight
● Additional signal processing circuitry required
● They are robust and can work in harsh
environments

● Can work in high temperature and high

vibration environment
 Working Principle

The variable reluctance sensor consists of a wire wrapped around a

permanent magnet. When the ferromagnetic material such as a
flywheel tooth passes the sensor the magnetic field is disrupted. Due
to this an AC voltage is generated, the amplitude and frequency of
which depends on the speed of the flywheel. Here the polarity of the Figure 1 : Construction
voltage is not important. The amplitude of this AC voltage also of Reluctance pick-up
depends on the air gap i.e. the distance between the sensor and the
flywheel tooth. The voltage decreases as the air gap increases and
the voltage increases as air gap decreases. Since the amplitude
depends on the speed and also the air gap, correct setting of the air
gap is very important when measuring lower speeds. This AC signal
from the sensor can be processed further to obtain the digital output.
The variable Reluctance sensors are called as passive sensors since
they don’t need external power supply for their operation.

Figure 2 : Working
principle of a Reluctance
pick-up
 06 Eddy current thickness
gauge
A dry film thickness gauge, eddy current is an electronic tool used to measure the thickness of non-conductive
coatings on conductive but non-ferrous or non-magnetic substrates like brass, aluminium, copper or
aluminium.

Eddy current techniques are used to nondestructively measure the thickness of non-conductive coatings on
nonferrous metal substrates. A coil of fine wire conducting a high-frequency alternating current (above 1
MHz) is used to set up an alternating magnetic field at the surface of the instrument's probe.

Specification:
Operating principle: magnetic induction/eddy current (F/NF)
Measuring range:0-1250um/0-50mil
Resolution; 0.1/1
Accuracy: ±1-3%n or ±2.5um
Min. measuring area: 6mm
Min. sample thickness: 0.3mm
Battery indicator: low battery indicator
Metric/ imperial: convertible
Power supply: 4x1.5V AAA(UM-4)battery
Operating conditions:0-+45ºC(32ºF-104ºF),≤90%RH
Dimensions: 126x65x27mm
weight: 81g(not including battery) Figure: Eddy current thickness
Optional accessories: other range 0-200um to 15000um gauge
 Applications of Eddy current thickness gauge
● Flow metering
● Engine and turbo speed
● Anti-lock braking systems (ABS)
● Traction Control systems
● Conveyor / Process speed
● Oily, wet, and harsh environments
● High temperature / high-pressure

Advantages of Eddy current

thickness gauge Disadvantages of Eddy current
thickness gauge
● Sensitivity to surface defects. ● Very susceptible to magnetic permeability
changes.
● Can detect through several layers.
● Only effective on conductive materials.
● Can detect through surface coatings. ● Will not detect defects parallel to surface.
● Not suitable for large areas and/or complex
● Accurate conductivity measurements.
geometries.
● Can be automated. ● Signal interpretation required.
● No permanent record (unless automated).
● Little pre-cleaning required.

● Portability.
 Working Principle

The coil core in the eddy current coating thickness gauge

probe is usually made of a high-frequency material such as
platinum-nickel alloy, which generates a high-frequency
electromagnetic field in the coil by the current. After
contacting of the conductor (metal substrate) at the probe
and the bottom, eddy currents are formed on the metal
substrate. The closer the probe is to the conductor (metal
Figure 1 : Construction of Eddy
substrate),the larger the eddy current and vice versa. This current thickness gauge
eddy current will have a feedback effect on the coils in the
probe. The magnitude of the feedback action can represent
the distance between the probe and the conductor (metal
substrate),that is,the non-conductive coating thickness on the
conductive metal substrate.

Figure 2 : Working principle of a

Eddy current thickness gauge
 07 Capacitor microphone
A condenser microphone is an active transducer that converts sound waves (mechanical wave energy) into
audio signals (electrical energy) via the movement of a diaphragm in a fixed-charge capacitor-based capsule
and electrostatic principles.

The British call them “capacitor microphones” – and Specification:

for a reason, too. You may remember from physics ● Transducer / Capsule Technology: 33 mm fixed-
class that a capacitor is essentially two metal plates charge condenser / 29 mm 3.4 micron gold-sputtered
in close proximity. The closer they are, the higher the diaphragm
capacitance. A condenser capsule is constructed ● Frequency Response: 40 Hz - 20 kHz
similarly. It consists of a thin membrane in close ● Polar Pattern: Cardioid
proximity to a solid metal plate. The membrane or ● Output Impedance: 150 ohms
diaphragm, as it is often called, must be electrically ● Sensitivity: 23 mV / Pa @ 1 kHz
conductive, at least on its surface. The most common ● Signal to Noise Ratio: 84 dB
material is gold-sputtered mylar, but some (mostly ● Maximum SPL: 140 dB
older) models employ an extremely thin metal foil. ● Dynamic Range: 130 dB
● Equivalent Noise Level: 10 dBA
● Operating Voltage: 48 V (± 4 V) Phantom
● Connector: 3-pin XLR m
● Materials / Finish Body: Machined aluminum
● Grille: Steel alloy
● Weight: 280 g / 10 oz
 Applications of condenser microphone
● Capacitor microphones are best used to capture vocals and
high frequencies.
● They are also the preferred type of microphone for most
studio applications.
● Capacitor microphones are mainly used in studios because
of their detail and accuracy

A condenser
microphone
Advantages of condenser microphone
Disadvantages of condenser
● It is smaller in size. microphone
● It requires voltage to operate.
● It has flat frequency response. ● It can handle certain maximum input signal level.
● It is more complex compared to dynamic
● It is light in weight compare to dynamic microphone
microphone.
due to lighter diaphragm assembly.
● It is more expensive compared to dynamic
● It supports high range of frequencies for fast moving microphone.
diaphragm. ● Cheaper condenser microphone generates small
magnitude of noise.
● It offers high sensitivity.
 Working Principle

TA capacitor or condenser microphone works by using a capacitor

to convert the compression and rarefaction of sound waves into
electrical energy. A capacitor is a passive electronic component
consisting of two conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator).
This capacitor within the condenser microphone is referred to as a Figure 1 : Construction of
“capsule”. A condenser microphone capsule consists of a front condenser microphone
plate made out of a thin, flexible, metalized material (referred to
as the diaphragm or membrane) and a back plate made out of a
solid metal material, as well as a thin dielectric separating the two
conductors. Voltage is sent to the capsule in order to create a
charge within the capsule. This voltage is known as “phantom
power”. When the diaphragm is struck by sound waves, it causes
the diaphragm to vibrate, which, in turn causes a change in
capacitance within the capsule. As the capacitance changes, it
creates a change in voltage. This electrical signal is then sent via
wires to an internal amplifier, then to the microphones output.

Figure 2 :Working principle of

 08 Pressure gauge
Digital pressure gages are devices that convert applied pressure into signals. Readouts are then displayed
numerically.

The Pressure Gauge is a measuring instrument that helps to measure the force exerted by the fluids (liquids
and gases both are called fluids) when they are in a static position and even at a dynamic position. The
pressure is a type of force that we calculate when it is applied over any fluids (liquid or gases).

Specification:
● Measurement range: -100 ~ 0 ~ 100kPa 0 ~ 0.1~ 60MPa
● Accuracy: + 1, 0.5 FS
● Sampling time: 1-5 seconds
● Display: 4 LCDS
● Power supply battery: 3.6V/2Ah industrial lithium battery 1,
continuous use for 5 years
● Environmental conditions: temperature: - 20 ~ 50 ℃ wet:
90%
RH overload capacity: 200% FS
● Connection thread: M20 x 1.5 or customized according to
user's requirements Figure: Pressure
● Shell material: 1C18Ni9Ti gauge
● Face plate: glass + inner PVC mask
 Applications of Pressure gauge
● It is highly used in Automobiles sector.
● It also used in Aeronautics.
● In oil production, pressure gauge is used for various purpose.
● Food industry uses it for production.
● Pressure gauge is useful for chemical industries.

Advantages of Pressure gauge

Disadvantages of Pressure gauge
● No operator interpretation required
● They are not easy to see full scale or trending
● No parallax error
● They are not able to read oscillating values
● Back-lit capability

● Steady reading in high vibration ● They require power.

● Easy to re-range
 Working Principle

The pressure of the measured medium acts on the pressure

sensing film of the sensor. The sensor sends the induced
electrical signal to the CPU for processing after amplification and
a / D conversion, and then outputs the signal by analog or digital
quantity, so as to realize the purpose of pressure display, control Figure 1 : Construction of
and transmission. The microprocessor can pressure gauge
automatically compensate the zero drift, temperature drift and
nonlinearity of the instrument, so as to ensure the high value of
the instrument Accuracy. Digital pressure gauges make use of
pressure sensors in order to convert pressure to an electronic
signal. Different types of pressure sensors exist, but the most
commonly used is a piezoresistive pressure sensor. This sensor
consists out of a diaphragm that is equipped with piezoresistive
elements. The medium pressure causes the diaphragm to
deflect, this deflection causes a change in cross-sectional area of
the piezoresistive elements that is directly coupled to the
electrical resistance. For a more in depth explanation please read
our article on electronic pressure measurement principles.
Figure 2 :Working principle
of pressure gauge
 09 Dielectric gauge
The change in capacitance due to a change in the dielectric is known by its corresponding liquid level or
thickness.
The change in capacitance due to a change in the dielectric is known by its corresponding liquid level or
thickness. Capacitor Microphone – The change in capacitance due to the variation in sound pressure on a
movable diagram is known by its corresponding sound.

Specification:
Operating principle: magnetic induction/eddy current (F/NF)
Measuring range:0-1250um/0-50mil
Resolution; 0.1/1
Accuracy: ±1-3%n or ±2.5um
Min. measuring area: 6mm
Min. sample thickness: 0.3mm
Battery indicator: low battery indicator
Metric/ imperial: convertible
Power supply: 4x1.5V AAA(UM-4)battery
Operating conditions:0-+45ºC(32ºF-104ºF),≤90%RH
Dimensions: 126x65x27mm
weight: 81g(not including battery) Figure: Dielectric gauge
Optional accessories: other range 0-200um to 15000um
 Application of Dielectric Properties
● Dielectrics are used as a capacitor for storing energy.
● The dielectric material in a transformer is used as an insulator and as a cooling agent.
● To enhance the performance of a semiconductor device, high permittivity dielectric materials
are used.

Advantages of Dielectric gauge

Disadvantages of Dielectric gauge
1. It requires an external force for operation
and is hence very useful for small systems. 1. The metallic parts of the transducers require
insulation
2. The capacitive transducer is very sensitive. 2. The frame of the capacitor requires earthing
3. It gives a good frequency response because for reducing the effect of the stray magnetic
of which it is used for the dynamic study. field.
3. The cable connecting across the transducer
4. The transducer has high input impedance causes an error
hence they have a small loading effect.
 Working Principle

The principle of capacitive level measurement is

based on change of capacitance. An insulated
electrode acts as one plate of capacitor and the
tank wall (or reference electrode in a non-metallic
vessel) acts as the other plate. The capacitance
depends on the fluid level. By placing non-
conductive material between the electrodes, the
ability for the capacitor to store energy increases
and so the capacitance increases. This material
between the electrodes is referred to as the
'dielectric'. The key property of dielectric Figure 2 :Working principle of
materials is the amount of charge that can be dielectric gauge
stored
 10 Thermocouples
A thermocouple is a device for measuring temperature.

A thermocouple can be defined as a kind of temperature sensor that is used to measure the temperature at
one specific point in the form of the EMF or an electric current. This sensor comprises two dissimilar metal
wires that are connected together at one junction. The temperature can be measured at this junction, and the
change in temperature of the metal wire stimulates the voltages.

Specification:
● Measurement range: J type: 0 to 750 °C (32° to 1382°F), K type: 0
to 1250 °C (32° to 2282°F), S type: -50 to 1760 °C (-58° to 3200°F), T type: -200
to 100 °C (-328° to 212°F),Internal temperature: 0° to 50°C (32° to 122°F)
● Accuracy: J type: ±2.5°C or 0.5% of reading, whichever is
greater. K type: ±4.0°C or 0.5% of the reading, whichever is
greater. S type: ±6.0°C or 0.5% of reading, whichever is greater. T
type: ±1.5°C (±2.7°F) Internal temperature: ± 0.35°C (± 0.63°F)
● Drift Internal temperature: 0.1°C/year (0.2°F/year)
● Humidity range: 0 to 95% RH, non-condensing
● Time accuracy: ± 1 minute per month at 25°C (77°F
● Operating temperature: Logging: 0° to 50°C (32° to 122°F)Launch/readout: 0°
to 50°C (32° to 122°F), per USB specification
● Battery life: 1 year typical use Figure: A Thermocouple
● Memory: 64K bytes (43,000 12-bit measurements)
● Weight: 46 g (1.6 oz)
● Dimensions: 58 x 74 x 22 mm (2.3 x 2.9 x 0.9 inches)
 Applications of Thermocouple
● These are used as the temperature sensors in thermostats in offices, homes, offices & businesses.
● These are used in industries for monitoring temperatures of metals in iron, aluminum, and metal.
● These are used in the food industry for cryogenic and Low-temperature applications.
● These are used to test temperature in chemical plants, petroleum plants.
● These are used in gas machines for detecting the pilot flame.

Advantages of Thermocouple
● Accuracy is high
Disadvantages of Thermocouple
● Nonlinearity
● It is Robust and can be used in environments like
harsh as well as high vibration. ● Least stability
● Low voltage
● The thermal reaction is fast
● Reference is required
● The operating range of the temperature is wide.
● least sensitivity
● Wide operating temperature range ● The thermocouple recallibration is hard
● Cost is low and extremely consistent
 Working Principle

The thermocouple principle mainly depends on the three effects

namely Seebeck, Peltier, and Thompson.
See beck-effect
This type of effect occurs among two dissimilar metals. When
the heat offers to any one of the metal wires, then the flow of
electrons supplies from hot metal wire to cold metal wire. Figure 1 : Construction of
Therefore, direct current stimulates the circuit. Thermocouple
Peltier-effect
This Peltier effect is opposite to the Seebeck effect. This effect
states that the difference of the temperature can be formed
among any two dissimilar conductors by applying the potential
variation among them.
Thompson-effect
This effect states that as two disparate metals fix together & if
they form two joints then the voltage induces the total
conductor’s length due to the gradient of temperature. This is a
physical word that demonstrates the change in rate and
direction of temperature at an exact position.
Figure 2 : Working principle
of a Thermocouple
 11 Photovoltaic cell
A photovoltaic cell (PV cell) is a specialized semiconductor diode that converts visible light into direct current
(DC)

A photovoltaic (PV) cell is an energy harvesting technology, that converts solar energy into useful electricity
through a process called the photovoltaic effect. There are several different types of PV cells which all use
semiconductors to interact with incoming photons from the Sun in order to generate an electric current.

Specification: 180W panel

● Maximum power voltage (V): 36.31
● Maximum power current (A): 4.98
● Open circuit voltage (V): 44.97
● Short circuit current (A): 5.23
● Maximum system voltage (V) 1000
● Temperature range: -40°C to +80°C
● Tolerance Wattage (e.g. +/-3°C): +/-5°C
● Surface Maximum Load Capacity: 60m/s(200kg/sqm)
● Available Hail Load: steel ball fall down from 1m height
● Weight per piece (kg): 16.3
● Junction Box Type: PV-RH0301 (TUV)
● Length of cables (mm): 900mm
● Cell Efficiency: >15.2%
● Module Efficiency: >15% Figure: A Photovoltaic cell
● Output tolerance: +/-5%
● Frame (Materials, corners, etc): Aluminium
 Applications of photovoltaic cell
● Its mostly use in the field of toys, watches, etc.
● They also use in the field of electric fence.
● Its also use in the field of Remote lighting systems area.
● This may be use in the field of portable power supplies
● They mostly use in the field of satellites.
● They also use in the field of water treatment & pumping.
● Its may be use in the field of emergency power.

Advantages of photovoltaic cell

Disadvantages of photovoltaic cell
● High reliability
● High startup cost
● Strong persistence ● Available solar radiation instability
● Low maintenance costs ● Have energy storage requirements

● Zero fuel consumption ● Efficiency needs to be improved

● Lack of knowledge and skills
● Noise pollution is small

● There is photovoltaic supervision

● Strong security

● Strong independence
 Working Principle

When light reaches the p-n junction, the light photons can
easily enter in the junction, through very thin p-type layer.
The light energy, in the form of photons, supplies sufficient
energy to the junction to create a number of electron-hole
pairs. The incident light breaks the thermal equilibrium Figure 1 : Construction of
condition of the junction. The free electrons in the depletion
region can quickly come to the n-type side of the junction. Photovoltaic cell
Similarly, the holes in the depletion can quickly come to the
p-type side of the junction. Once, the newly created free
electrons come to the n-type side, cannot further cross the
junction because of barrier potential of the junction.
Similarly, the newly created holes once come to the p-type
side cannot further cross the junction became of same
barrier potential of the junction. As the concentration of
electrons becomes higher in one side,
i.e. n-type side of the junction and concentration of holes
becomes more in another side, i.e. the p-type side of the
junction, the p-n junction will behave like a small battery
cell. A voltage is set up which is known as photo voltage. If Figure 2 : Working principle of a
we connect a small load across the junction, there will Photovoltaic cell
be a tiny current flowing through it.
12 Rotational motion
tachometer
The tachometer is a measuring instrument that is used to measure the operating speed of an engine in
revolutions per minute. It is also known as a revolution counter.

The word tachometer is Specification:

derived from two Greek ● Testing Range Contact : 0.5 To 19999 RPM
words: tachos mean “speed” Non Contact 2.5 to 99999 RPM (r/min)
and metron means “to Surface Speed : 1) 0.05 to 1999.9 m/min
measure”. It works on the ● Resolution : Contact :
principle of a tachometer ○ RPM :0.1RPM (up to 0.05 TO 1999.9 RPM)
generator, which means ○ 1RPM (OVER 1000 RPM)
○ Surface Speed: 0.01 m/min(0.5 to 99.99m/min)
when a motor is operated as
○ m/min(over 100 m/min)
a generator, it produces the
○ Non Contact : 0.1RPM (2.5 TO 999.9 RPM)
voltage according
○ 1RPM (OVER 1000 RPM)
to the velocity of the shaft. It ● Accuracy ±0.05%
is also known as revolution- ● Testing Parameters : RPM, m/min, ft/min
counter, and its operating ● Sampling Time : 0.8 sec (over 60 RPM)
principle can be ● Operation Temperature : 0°C to 50°C Figure: A
electromagnetic, electronic, ● Display: 5 Digital LCD Display Tachometer
or optical-based. ● Detecting Distance : 2 to 20 inch.(for non- contact type)
● Low Battery Indication.
● Power Supply : 4 X 1.5 volt AA Size Batteries
 Applications of Tachometer
● It is used to measure rotational speed.
● It can measure the flow of liquid with the help of an attached wheel with an inclined angle.
● It is applicable for the medical sector to measure the blood flow rate of the patients.
● It is used in vehicles to display the rate of engine crankshaft rotation.

Advantages of Tachometer
Disadvantages of Tachometer
● Sensitivity to surface defects. ● Very susceptible to magnetic permeability
● Can detect through several layers. changes.

● Can detect through surface coatings. ● Only effective on conductive materials.

● Will not detect defects parallel to surface.
● Accurate conductivity measurements.
● Not suitable for large areas and/or complex
● Can be automated.
geometries.
● Little pre-cleaning required. ● Signal interpretation required.

● Portability. ● No permanent record (unless automated).

 Working Principle

The variable reluctance sensor consists of a wire

wrapped around a permanent magnet. When the
ferromagnetic material such as a flywheel tooth passes
the sensor the magnetic field is disrupted. Due to this
an AC voltage is generated, the amplitude and
frequency of which depends on the speed of the
flywheel. Here the polarity of the voltage is not
important. The amplitude of this AC voltage also
depends on the air gap i.e. the distance between the
sensor and the flywheel tooth. The voltage decreases
as the air gap increases and the voltage increases as
air gap decreases. Since the amplitude depends on the
speed and also the air gap, correct setting of the air
gap is very important when measuring lower speeds.
Figure 2 : Working principle of a
This AC signal from the sensor can be processed further
to obtain the digital output. Tachometer
The variable Reluctance sensors are called as passive
sensors since they don’t need external power supply for
their operation.
 13 Piezoelectric pickup
These cells convert weight or force into electrical outputs which are provided by the strain gauges.

A piezoelectric transducer (also known as a piezoelectric sensor) is a device that uses the piezoelectric
effect to measure changes in acceleration, pressure,strain, temperature or force by converting this
energy into an electrical charge.

Specification:
● Impedance: ≤500Ω;

● Voltage: ≤30Vp-p;

● Operating temperature: -20°C~+60°C

● Storage temperature:-30°C~+70°C

● Low Soldering temperature

Figure: Piezoelectric pickup
● Strain sensitivity: 5V/μƐ

● Material: Quartz (mostly used)

 Applications of Piezoelectric Transducers
● As piezoelectric materials cannot measure static values these are primarily used for measuring surface
roughness, in accelerometers and as a vibration pickup.

● They are used in seismographs to measure vibrations in rockets.

● In strain gauges to measure force, stress, vibrations etc…

● Used by automotive industries to measure detonations in engines.

● These are used in ultrasonic imaging in medical applications.

● Advantages and Limitations of Piezoelectric Transducer

Advantages of Piezoelectric Disadvantages of Piezoelectric

Transducers Transducers
● It is not suitable for measurement in static condition
● No need for an external force
● It is affected by temperatures
● Easy to handle and use as it has small dimensions
● The output is low so some external circuit is attached
● High-frequency response it means the parameters to it
change very rapidly ● It is very difficult to give the desired shape to this
material and also desired strength
 Working Principle

The working principle of a Piezoelectric Transducer is based on

the fact that when a mechanical force is applied on a
piezoelectric crystal, a voltage is produced across its faces. Thus,
mechanical phenomena is converted into electrical signal. No
external supply is required for this transducer to work and hence Figure 1 : Construction of
it is an active transducer. Piezoelectric Transducer responds to
Piezoelectric Transducers
the mechanical force / deformation and generate voltage. There
may be various modes of deformation to which these transducers
can respond. The modes can be: thickness expansion, transverse
expansion, thickness shear and face shear. In a piezoelectric
transducer, a piezoelectric crystal is sandwiched between the two
electrodes. When a mechanical deformation takes place, it
generates charge and hence it acts as a capacitor. A voltage is
developed across the electrodes of the transducer which can be
measured and calibrated with the deforming force to directly
measure the mechanical deforming force. Figure below shows a
simple piezoelectric transducer.

Figure 2 : Working principle

of a
14 Potentiometer position
sensorThese cells convert weight or force into electrical outputs which are provided by the strain gauges.

Potentiometric position sensors, Specification:

also called a resistive sensors, SpecStroke Lengths: From 14" (350mm) up to 28" (700 mm)
measure the resistance of a Mechanical Stroke Length: Stroke Length + 0.28" (7 mm)
conductor track between a Non-Linearity (BFSL method): +/- 0.50% of full stroke (typical), +/- 1.0%
reference point and a cursor (max)
connected to a moving part (or its Resolution: Infinite
support). The resistance Repeatability: 0.0004" (0.01 mm)
measured by the sensor is used Maximum Operating Velocity: 5 m per second
to calculate the position of the Element Type: Conductive plastic
part. These sensors are accurate Output: 0 to 100% of excitation voltage
and generally inexpensive Element Resistance: 5.0K ohm (+/- 20%) to 10.0K ohm (+/- 20%),
because their technology is Depending on Measuring Range
simple. However, they are often Maximum Excitation Voltage: 36 VDC
sensitive to wear, vibration, Current Draw: ~10 mA (nominal)
foreign bodies and extreme Output Cable: 3 conductor with drain, 22 AWG, PVC jacket, 3 foot long
temperatures. Operating Temperature Range: -40 to +195°F (-40 to +95°C)
Thermal Coefficient of Sensitivity: <0.03%/°C nominal
Humidity: 95% Max. RH (non-condensing)
 Applications:
● Motorsport is a very popular industry for potentiometer use,
both rotary and linear potentiometers are used to monitor
aspects including; ride height, steering angle measurement,
gearshift, suspension and throttle control on either 2- or 4-
wheel vehicles.
● Potentiometers have been used for precise measurement
and angle sensing in steering systems.
● Potentiometers are used in film production. Particularly in Figure :A potentiometer
special effects
●
position sensor
Rotary potentiometers are used on ticket barriers
Disadvantage
Advantage It is slow in operation.
It has limited bandwidth.
Potentiometric sensors are Inexpensive & high accurate. If we use a linear potentiometer, we should
apply a large force to move the sliding
The potentiometer has a simple construction. contact.
External factors sometimes hinder the
It can be operated easily. accuracy of producing the results.
The temperature of the potentiometer wire
It has a wide range of resistance values.
must remain uniform but it is difficult
It is sensitive. We can even measure small emf’s. because of the flowing current.

It does not need any energy to operate. It is self-energized.

 Working Principle

The linear potentiometer employs an electrically

conductive linear slide member (also called wiper)
connected to a variable wire wound resistor (winding)
that changes resistance to be equated to the linear
position of the device which is monitored. As the sliding
contact moves along the winding, the resistance is
changed in linear relationship with the distance from
one end of the potentiometer. To measure the
displacement, a potentiometer is typically wired as a
“voltage divider” so that the output voltage is
proportional to the distance traveled by the wiper. A
known voltage is applied to resistor ends. The contact is Figure : Working principle of a
attached to the moving object of interest. The output
potentiometer position sensor
voltage at the contact is proportional to the
displacement. The resolution is defined by the number
of turns per unit distance and it is affected by the
loading effects of the voltage divider circuit.
15 Pressure actuated voltage
divider
A voltage divider is a simple circuit which turns a large voltage into a smaller one. Using just two series
resistors and an input voltage, we can create an output voltage that is a fraction of the input. Voltage
dividers are one of the most fundamental circuits in electronics.

Specifications:
Series: Entube QE
Type: Voltage converter
Input range: ± 1500V
Output: ± 5V
Precision: ± 0.2%
Mounting type : DIN rail
Termination style: RJ45, Spring
terminal Operating
Temperature: -25 ° C to 70 ° C

Figure: Pressure actuated valve

 Applications:
1.Voltage dividers are used for adjusting the level of a signal.
2.They are used for bias of active devices in amplifiers, and for measurement of voltages.
3.A Wheatstone bridge and a multimeter both include voltage dividers.
4.A potentiometer is used as a variable voltage divider in the volume control of many radios

Advantages: Disadvantages:
1.Simplest method to measure voltage by
1.Measurement only as accurate as the
dividing and measuring small proportion of
components used for dividing the voltage,
larger voltage.
which introduce their own uncertainty.
2.If resistance dividers are used, they
2.Main voltage is many times too high to be
introduce a small power loss.
directly measured, when this method is handy
3.The ratio may be again affected by
and convenient. voltmeter resistance, which adds up to
uncertainty.
3. It can be got almost any division with quite
good accuracy.
 Working Principle

A voltage divider is a simple circuit that can reduce voltage. It

distributes the input voltage among the components of the
circuit.
The voltage drop across R2 is the output voltage and that’s also
the divided voltage across the circuit. The voltage divider
referenced to ground is created by connecting two resistors in
series. The input voltage is applied across the series resistances
R1 and R2 and the output is the voltage across R2. It follows that
the same value of electric current that flows through each
resistive element of the circuit has nowhere else to go. Thus
providing an IxR voltage drop across each resistive element.
Having the supply voltage, we can apply the Kirchoff’s Voltage
Law and Ohm’s Law to find the voltage dropped across each
resistor derived in terms of the common current flowing through
them.
Using KVL (Kirchoff’s Voltage Law),
Figure 2 : Working principle of
Vs = VR1 + VR2 pressure actuated voltage divider
With Ohm’s Law,
VR1 = I x R1
VR2 = I x R2
Using the two equations above, it will give
Vs = (I x R1) + (I x R2)
Vs = I(R1 + R2)
I = Vs / (R1 + R2)
Thank You