Chapter 7 Physic

CHAPTER 7.0: Lecture 3 hours

Optics
Tutorial 12 hours

1
 Chapter 7 Physic
Overview: s
Geometrical Optics

Reflection Refraction

Law Spherical Spherical Thin

Mirror surface lenses

Ray Convex Concave Equation

diagram 1 1 1
 
f u v
Ray Concave Convex Equation 1  1  1  2
diagram f u v r 2
 Chapter 7 Physic
Overview: s
Physical Optics

Huygens’ Interference
Diffraction
principle Systems

Single slit Grating

Young Thin film

double-slit

Transmission Reflective

3
 Chapter 7 Physic
Learning Outcome: s
7.1 Reflection at a spherical surface (3 hours)
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
 State radius of curvature, R = 2f for spherical mirror.
 Sketch ray diagrams with a minimum of two rays to
determine the characteristics of image formed by
spherical mirrors.
 Use mirror equation,

1 1 1 2
  
f u v R for real object only.
 Sign convention for focal length f:
+ f and R for concave mirror and
– f and R for convex mirror.
4
 Chapter 7 Physic
Learning Outcome: s
7.1 Reflection at a spherical surface (3 hours)
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
 Apply magnification,

hi 𝑣
𝑀 = =−
ho 𝑢

5
 Physic
Chapter 7

s
7.1 Reflection at a spherical surface
7.1.1 Reflection of light
 is defined as the return of all or part of a beam of light when
it encounters the boundary between two media.
 There are two types of reflection due to the plane surface
 Specular (regular) reflection is the reflection of light from
a smooth shiny surface as shown in Figure 7.1.

Figure 7.1

6
 Chapter 7 Physic
s
All the reflected rays are parallel to each another or move


in the same direction.

 Diffuse reflection is the reflection of light from a rough
surface such as papers, flowers, people as shown in Figure
7.2.

Figure 7.2
 The reflected rays is sent out in a variety of directions.

 For both types of reflection, the laws of reflection are obeyed.

7
 Chapter 7 Physic
The incident ray, the reflected ray and thes
 Laws of reflection state :
 normal all lie in
the same plane.
 The angle of incidence, i equals the angle of reflection, r
as shown in Figure 7.3.

i r i r

Plane surface
Figure 7.3
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 Chapter 7 Physic
7.1.2

Spherical mirror s
is defined as a reflecting surface that is part of a sphere.
 There are two types of spherical mirror. It is convex (curving
outwards) and concave (curving inwards) mirror.
 Figures 7.4a and 7.4b show the shape of concave and convex
mirrors.
(a) Concave (Converging) (b) Convex (Diverging) mirror
mirror imaginary sphere
A A
silver layer

C P P C
R R
B B
Figure 7.4a Figure 7.4b
reflecting surface
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 Chapter 7 Physic
Terms of spherical mirror
 Centre of curvature (point C) s
 is defined as the centre of the sphere of which a curved
mirror forms a part.
 Radius of curvature, R
 is defined as the radius of the sphere of which a curved
mirror forms a part.
 Pole or vertex (point P)
 is defined as the point at the centre of the mirror.
 Principal axis
 is defined as the straight line through the centre of
curvature C and pole P of the mirror.
 AB is called the aperture of the mirror.

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 Chapter 7 Physic
7.1.3 Focal point and focal length, f s
 Consider the ray diagram for a concave and convex mirrors as
shown in Figures 7.5a and 7.5b.
Incident Incident
rays rays

C P C
f P f
F F

Figure 7.5a Figure 7.5b

 Point F represents the focal point or focus of the mirrors.
 Distance f represents the focal length of the mirrors.
 The parallel incident rays represent the object infinitely far
away from the spherical mirror e.g. the sun.
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 Chapter 7 Physic
Focal point or focus, F
 s
For concave mirror – is defined as a point where the incident
parallel rays converge after reflection on the mirror.
 Its focal point is real (principal).
 For convex mirror – is defined as a point where the incident
parallel rays seem to diverge from a point behind the mirror
after reflection.
 Its focal point is virtual.

Focal length, f
 is defined as the distance between the focal point (focus) F
and pole P of the spherical mirror.
 The paraxial rays is defined as the rays that are near to and
almost parallel to the principal axis.

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 Chapter 7 Physic
s
7.1.4 Relationship between focal length, f and
radius of curvature, R
 Consider a ray AB parallel to the principal axis of concave
mirror as shown in Figure 7.6.
incident ray
A B
i
i

C i
F D P
f
R

Figure 7.6

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 Chapter 7 Physic
From the Figure 7.6,
s

BD
BCD tan i  i Taken the angles are <<
CD small by considering the
BD ray AB is paraxial ray.
BFD tan   
 FD
By using an isosceles triangle CBF, thus the angle  is given by
  2i
then BD  BD 
 2 
FD  CD 
C D  2 FD
 Because of AB is paraxial ray, thus point B is too close with pole
P then
CD CP R
FD  FP  f
 Therefore R
R 2 f OR f 
2
This relationship also valid for convex mirror. 14
 Chapter 7 Physic
7.1.5 s
Ray diagrams for spherical mirrors
 is defined as the simple graphical method to indicate the
positions of the object and image in a system of mirrors or
lenses.
 Figures 7.7a and 7.7b show the graphical method of locating an
image formed by concave and convex mirror.
(a) Concave mirror (b) Convex mirror
1 1
1
2 3
2
3 C 2
I P P C
O 2
F O I F
3
1
Figure 7.7a Figure 7.7b
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 Chapter 7 Physic
 Ray 1 - Parallel to principal axis, after reflection,
At least any passes
concave mirror
s
through the focal point (focus) F of a
or appears to come from the focal
two rays
for drawing point F of a convex mirror.
 Ray 2 - Passes or directed towards focal point F
the ray
diagram. reflected parallel to principal axis.
 Ray 3 - Passes or directed towards centre of
curvature C, reflected back along the same path.
Images formed by a convex mirror
 Figure 7.8 shows the graphical method of locating an image
formed by a convex mirror.

P C
O I F
u v
Figure 7.8 front back 16
 Chapter 7 Physic
 The characteristics of the image formed are
 Virtual s
 is seem to form by light coming from the image but

light does not actually pass through the image.

 would not appear on paper, screen or film placed at the

location of the image.

 upright
 diminished (smaller than the object)
 formed at the back of the mirror (behind the mirror)
 Object position   any position in front of the convex mirror.
 Convex mirror always being used as a driving mirror because it
has a wide field of view and providing an upright image.
Images formed by a concave mirror
 Concave mirror can be used as a shaving and makeup mirrors
because it provides an upright and virtual images.
 Table 7.1 shows the ray diagrams of locating an image formed

by a concave mirror for various object distance, u.

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 Chapter 7 Physic
Object
distance, u
Ray diagram s Image
characteristic

 Real
 Inverted
C I P  Diminished
u>R O F  Formed
between point
Front back C and F.

O
 Real
F
 Inverted
u=R C P  Same size
 Formed at point
C.
I
Front back 1818
 Object
distance, u
Ray diagram
Chapter 7 Physic
Image
characteristic


sReal
 Inverted
I C P
 Magnified
f<u<R
O F
 Formed at a
distance
greater than
CP.
Front back

O  Real or virtual
 Formed at
infinity.
u=f P
C F

Front back 19
19
 Object
distance, u
Chapter 7
Ray diagram Physic
Image
characteristic
s
 Virtual
 Upright
 Magnified
u<f  Formed at the
back of the
F mirror
C O P I

Front back

Table 7.1
 Linear (lateral) magnification of the spherical mirror, M is defined
as the ratio between image height, hi and object height, ho
hi 𝑣 where
v : image distance from the pole
𝑀 = =−
ho 𝑢 u : object distance from the pole
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 Chapter 7 Physic
7.1.6 s
Derivation of Spherical mirror equation
 Figure 7.9 shows an object O at a distance u and on the
principal axis of a concave mirror. A ray from the object O is
incident at a point B which is close to the pole P of the mirror.
 From the figure,
B BOC    (1)
BCI    (2)

 then, eq. (1)(2) :
        
O C I D P     2 (3)
v By using BOD, BCD and BID
u thus
BD BD BD
tan   ; tan   ; tan  
OD CD ID
Figure 7.9
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 Chapter 7 Physic


tan    ; tan    ; tan    s

By considering point B very close to the pole P, hence

OD OP u ; CD CP R ; ID IP v

then
BD BD BD Substituting this
 ; ;  value in eq. (3)
u R v
therefore
BD BD  BD 
 2 
u v  R 
1 1 2
  where R 2 f
u v R
1 1 1 2
   Spherical mirror’s
f u v R equation

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 Chapter 7 Physic

equation . s
Table 7.2 shows the sign convention for spherical mirror’s

Physical Quantity Positive sign (+) Negative sign (-)

Object distance, u Real object Virtual object

(in front of the mirror) (at the back of the mirror)

Image distance, v Real image Virtual image

(same side of the object) (opposite side of the object)
Radius of
Concave mirror Convex mirror
curvature, R
Focal length, f Concave mirror Convex mirror
Magnification, M Upright Inverted
 Note: Table 7.2
 Real image is formed by the actual light rays that pass
through the image.
 Real image can be projected on the screen.
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 Chapter 7 Physic
A dentist uses a small mirror attached to a thin rods
Example 7.1 :
to examine one
of your teeth. When the tooth is 1.20 cm in front of the mirror, the
image it forms is 9.25 cm behind the mirror. Determine
a. the focal length of the mirror and state the type of the mirror
used,
b. the magnification of the image.
Solution : u   1 . 20 cm; v   9.25 cm
a. By applying the mirror’s equation, thus
1 1 1 1 1 1
   
f u v f 1 .20  9 .25 
f   1 . 38 cm (Concave mirror)
b. By using the magnification formula, thus

𝑣 ( − 9.25 )
𝑀 =− 𝑀 =− =7.71
𝑢 1.20 24
 Chapter 7 Physic
Example 7.2 :
s by using
An upright image is formed 20.5 cm from the real object
the spherical mirror. The image’s height is one fourth of object’s
height.
a. Where should the mirror be placed relative to the object?
b. Calculate the radius of curvature of the mirror and describe the
type of mirror required.
c. Sketch and label a ray diagram to show the formation of the
image.
Solution : h  0 . 25 h
i o
Spherical
mirror
u v

O 2 0.5 cm I
25
 Chapter 7 Physic
Solution : hi  0 . 25 ho
a. From the figure, s
u  v  20 .5 (1)
By using the equation of linear magnification, thus
hi 𝑣 0.25 ho v
𝑀 = =− 
ho 𝑢 ho u
v   0 . 25 u (2)
By substituting eq. (2) into eq. (1), hence
u   0 . 25u  20 . 5
u 16 . 4 cm
The mirror should be placed 16.4 cm in front of the object.

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 Chapter 7 Physic
Solution : hi  0 . 25 ho
b. By using the mirror’s equation, thus s
1 1 1
 
f u v
1 1 1
 
f u  0 .25u 
1 1 1
 
f 16 .4  0 .2516 .4 
R
f   5 . 47 cm and f 
R 25.47  10.9 cm 2
The type of spherical mirror is convex because the negative
value of focal length.

27
 Chapter 7 Physic
Solution : hi  0 . 25 ho
c. The ray diagram is shown below. s

P C
O I F

front back

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 Chapter 7 Physic
Example 7.3 :
s of a
A person of 1.60 m height stands 0.60 m from a surface
hanging shiny globe in a garden.
a. If the diameter of the globe is 18 cm, where is the image of the
person relative to the surface of the globe?
b. How tall is the person’s image?
c. State the characteristics of the person’s image.
Solution : h 1 . 60 m; u  0.60 m
o

ho

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 Chapter 7 Physic
Solution : h o 1 . 60 m; u  0.60 m
a. Given d  0 . 18 m s
The radius of curvature of the globe’s surface (convex surface)
is given by 0.18
R   0.09 m
2
By applying the mirror’s equation, hence
2 1 1
 
R u v
2 1 1
 
 0 .09 0 .60 v
v   0 . 042 m (behind the globe’s surface)

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 Chapter 7 Physic
Solution : h o 1 . 60 m; u  0.60 m
b. By applying the magnification formula, thus
s
hi 𝑣
𝑀 = =−
ho 𝑢
hi

 0.042 
1.60 0.60
hi  0 . 112 m OR 11 . 2 cm
c. The characteristics of the person’s image are
 virtual
 upright
 diminished
 formed behind the reflecting surface.

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 Chapter 7 Physic
Example 7.4 :
s bulb on a
A shaving or makeup mirror forms an image of a light
wall of a bathroom that is 3.50 m from the mirror. The height of the
bulb is 8.0 mm and the height of its image is 40 cm.
a. Sketch a labeled ray diagram to show the formation of the bulb’s

image.
b. Calculate
i. the position of the bulb from the pole of the mirror,
ii. the focal length of the mirror. 3 2
v  3.50 m; h o  8 . 0 10 m; h i  40 10 m
Solution :
a. The ray diagram of the bulb is
O
I 8 . 0 mm P
C F u
40 cm

3 . 50 m 32
 Chapter 7 Physic
3 2
Solution : v  3.50 m; h  8 . 0 10 m; h  40 10 m
o
b. i. By applying the magnification formula, thus
is
hi 𝑣
𝑀 = =−
ho 𝑢
2
40 10 3 .50
 3

8 .0 10 u
u  0 . 07 m OR 7 . 0 cm
The position of the bulb is 7.0 cm in front of the mirror.
ii. By applying the mirror’s equation, thus
1 1 1
 
f u v
1 1 1
 
f 0.07 3.50
f  0 . 0687 m OR 6 . 87 cm 33
 Chapter 7 Physic
Exercise 7.1 :
1. a. s four times
A concave mirror forms an inverted image
larger than the object. Calculate the focal length of the
mirror, assuming the distance between object and image is
0.600 m.
b. A convex mirror forms a virtual image half the size of
the object. Assuming the distance between image and
object is 20.0 cm, determine the radius of curvature of the
mirror.
ANS. : 160 mm ; 267 mm
2. a. A 1.74 m tall shopper in a department store is 5.19 m
from a security mirror. The shopper notices that his image
in the mirror appears to be only 16.3 cm tall.
i. Is the shopper’s image upright or inverted? Explain.
ii. Determine the radius of curvature of the mirror.
b. A concave mirror of a focal length 36 cm produces an
image whose distance from the mirror is one third of
the object distance. Calculate the object and image
distances. 34
 Chapter 7 Physic
Learning Outcome: s
7.2 Refraction at a spherical surface (1 hour)
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
 Use

n1 n2 n2  n1 
  for spherical surface.
u v R
 Use sign convention for radius of curvature, R:
+ R for convex surface and
– R for concave surface

35
 Chapter 7 Physic
7.2 Refraction at a spherical surface
 s R forms an
Figure 7.10 shows a spherical surface with radius,
interface between two media with refractive indices n1 and n2.

B  n2
n1 i

  
O PD C I
𝑅
u v
Figure 7.10
 The surface forms an image I of a point object O.
 The incident ray OB making an angle i with the normal and is
refracted to ray BI making an angle  where n1 < n2.
 Point C is the centre of curvature of the spherical surface and
BC is normal. 36
 Chapter 7 Physic
 From the Figure 7.10,
BOC i    (1) s
BIC   
    (2)
 From the Snell’s law
n1 sin i  n 2 sin 
By using BOD, BCD and BID thus
BD BD BD
tan   ; tan   ; tan  
OD CD ID
By considering point B very close to the pole P, hence

sin i  i ; sin    ; tan    ; tan    ; tan   

OD OP u ; CD CP R ; ID IP v
then Snell’s law can be written as

n1i  n 2 (3)

37
 Chapter 7 Physic
By substituting eq. (1) and (2) into eq. (3), thus
s


n1 (   )  n 2 (   )
then
n 1  n 2   ( n 2  n 1 )
 BD   BD   BD 
n1    n2   (n2  n1 ) 
 u   v   R 
n1 n2 (n2  n1 )
  Equation of spherical
u v R refracting surface

where v : image distance from pole

u : object distance from pole
n1 : refractive index of medium 1
( M edium containing the incident ray)
n 2 : refractive index of medium 2
( M edium containing the refracted ray)
38
 Chapter 7 Physic
 Note :
 If the refracting surface is flat (plane) : s
R 
then
n1 n2
 0
u v
 The equation (formula) of linear magnification for refraction
by the spherical surface is given by

hi 𝑛1 𝑣
𝑀 = =−
ho 𝑛2 𝑢

39
 Chapter 7 Physic

lenses: s
Table 7.3 shows the sign convention for refraction or thin

Physical Quantity Positive sign (+) Negative sign (-)

Real object Virtual object
Object distance, u (in front of the refracting (at the back of the
surface) refracting surface)
Real image Virtual image
Image distance, v (opposite side of the (same side of the
object) object)

Focal length, f Convex lens Concave lens

Radius of
Convex surface Concave surface
curvature, R
Magnification, M Upright Inverted
Table 7.3

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 Chapter 7 Physic
A cylindrical glass rod in air has a refractive index s
Example 7.5 :
of 1.52. One end
is ground to a hemispherical surface with radius, R =3.00 cm as
shown in Figure 7.11.

air glass
P
.00 cm C I
O 3
10 . 0 cm
Figure 7.11
Calculate,
a. the position of the image for a small object on the axis of the
rod,
10.0 cm to the left of the pole as shown in figure.
b. the linear magnification.
(Given the refractive index of air , na= 1.00)
41
 Chapter 7 Physic
Solution : 𝑛 =1.52 ;𝑢=10.0 cm ; 𝑅=+3.00 cm
g s
a. By using the equation of spherical refracting surface, thus
𝑛a 𝑛 g ( 𝑛 g −𝑛 a )
+ =
𝑢 𝑣 𝑅
1 .00 1 .52 1 .52  1 .00 
  v   20 . 7 cm
10 .0 v  3 .00
The image is 20.7 cm at the back of the convex surface.
b. The linear magnification of the image is given by

𝑛1 𝑣 𝑛a 𝑣
𝑀 =− 𝑀 =−
𝑛2 𝑢 𝑛g 𝑢
( 1.00 )( 20.7 )
¿−
(1.52 )( 10.0 )
𝑀 =− 1.36 42
 Chapter 7 Physic
Example 7.6 :
s20.0 cm from
Figure 7.12 shows an object O placed at a distance
the surface P of a glass sphere of radius 5.0 cm and refractive
index of 1.63.
Glass sphere
air
P
O 5 . 0 cm
20 . 0 cm
Figure 7.12
Determine
a. the position of the image formed by the surface P of the glass
sphere,
b. the position of the final image formed by the glass sphere.
(Given the refractive index of air , na= 1.00)
43
 Chapter 7 Physic
Solution : 𝑛 =1.63 ;𝑢=20.0 cm ; 𝑅=+5 .0 cm
g s
a. By using the equation of spherical refracting surface, thus
𝑛a 𝑛 g ( 𝑛 g −𝑛 a )
+ =
𝑢 𝑣 𝑅
1 .00 1 .63 1 .63  1 .00 
  v   21 . 5 cm
20 .0 v  5 .0
The image is 21.5 cm at the back of the first surface P.
OR
na ng
O P C I1
𝑅
u  20 . 0 cm v  21 . 5 cm

44
 Chapter 7 Physic
Solution :
b.
s
na ng na
O P C Q
I2 I1
2 1.5 cm
1 1.5 cm
First surface
Second surface
From the figure above, the image I1 formed by the first surface P
is in the glass and 11.5 cm from the second surface Q. I1 acts
as a virtual object for the second surface and
n1  n g 1.63 ; n 2  n a 1.00; u   11 . 5 cm;
𝑅=−5.00 cm
Concave surface
45
 Chapter 7 Physic
Solution :
b. By using
s
𝑛g 𝑛a ( 𝑛 a − 𝑛g )
+ =
𝑢 𝑣 𝑅
1 .63 1 .00 1 .00  1 .63 
 
 11 .5 v  5 .0
v   3 . 74 cm
The image is real and 3.74 cm at the back of the second
surface Q.

46
 Chapter 7 Physic
Exercise 7.2 :
s
1. A small strip of paper is pasted on one side of a glass sphere
of radius 5 cm. The paper is then view from the opposite
surface of the sphere. Determine the position of the image.
(Given the refractive index of glass =1.52 and the refractive
index of air =1.00)
ANS. : 20.83 cm in front of the 2nd refracting surface.

2. A point source of light is placed at a distance of 25.0 cm from

the centre of a glass sphere of radius 10 cm. Determine the
image position of the source.
(Given the refractive index of glass =1.52 and the refractive
index of air =1.00)
ANS. : 25.2 cm at the back of the 2nd refracting surface.

47
 Chapter 7 Physic
Learning Outcome: s
7.3 Thin lenses (3 hours)
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
 Use thin lens equation,

1 1 1
  for real object only.
u v f
 Use sign convention for focal length, f:
+ f for convex lens and – f for concave lens.
 Use lensmaker’s equation:

1  nmaterial   1 1 
  1   
f  nmedium   R1 R2 
48
 Chapter 7 Physic
Learning Outcome: s
7.3 Thin lenses (3 hours)
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
 Apply magnification,

hi 𝑣
𝑀 = =−
ho 𝑢
 Use the thin lens formula for a combination of to convex
lenses.

49
 Chapter 7 Physic
7.3 Thin lenses

s
is defined as a transparent material with two spherical
refracting surfaces whose thickness is thin compared to
the radii of curvature of the two refracting surfaces.
 There are two types of thin lenses. It is convex and concave
lenses.
 Figures 7.13a and 7.13b show the various types of thin lenses,
both convex and concave.
(a) Convex (Converging) lenses

R1 R2 R1 R2 R1 R2
(+ve) (ve) (+ve) () (+ve) (+ve)
Biconvex Plano-convex Convex meniscus
Figure 7.13a
50
 Chapter 7 Physic
(b) Concave (Diverging) lenses
s
R1 R2 R1 R2 R1 R2
(ve) (+ve) (ve) () (+ve) (+ve)
Biconcave Plano-concave Concave meniscus
Figure 7.13b
7.3.1 Terms of thin lenses
 Figures 7.14 show the shape of convex (converging) and
concave (diverging) lenses.
(a) Convex lens (b) Concave lens

R1 R1

C1 O C2 C1 O C2
R2 R2
Figure 7.14 51
 Chapter 7 Physic
 Centre of curvature (point C1 and C2) s
 is defined as the centre of the sphere of which the surface
of the lens is a part.
 Radius of curvature (R1 and R2)
 is defined as the radius of the sphere of which the surface
of the lens is a part.
 Principal (Optical) axis
 is defined as the line joining the two centres of curvature
of a lens.
 Optical centre (point O)
 is defined as the point at which any rays entering the lens
pass without deviation.

52
 Chapter 7 Physic
7.3.2 Focal point and focal length, f s
 Consider the ray diagrams for convex and concave lenses as
shown in Figures 7.15a and 7.15b.

F1 O F2 F1 O F2

f f
f f
Figure 7.15a Figure 7.15b
 From the figures,
 Points F and F represent the focus of the lenses.
1 2
 Distance f represents the focal length of the lenses.

53
 Chapter 7 Physic
Focus (point F1 and F2) s
 For convex (converging) lens – is defined as the point on the
principal axis where rays which are parallel and close to the
principal axis converges after passing through the lens.
 Its focus is real (principal).
 For concave (diverging) lens – is defined as the point on the
principal axis where rays which are parallel to the principal
axis seem to diverge from after passing through the lens.
 Its focus is virtual.

Focal length ( f )
 is defined as the distance between the focus F and the
optical centre O of the lens.

54
 Chapter 7 Physic
s
7.3.3 Thin lens formula, lens maker’s and linear
magnification equations
Thin lens formula and lens maker’s equation
 Considering the ray diagram of refraction for two spherical
surfaces as shown in Figure 7.16.
R1 R2

n2 n1
n1

u1
u 2 v1  t

v1
Figure 7.16 55
 Chapter 7 Physic

sgiven by
By using the equation of spherical refracting surface, the
refraction by first surface and second surface are
 Surface 1 (R1)
n1 n2 (n2  n1 )
  (1)
u1 v1 R1
 Surface 2 (R2)
n2 n1 (n1  n2 )
 
 v1  t  v2 R2
Assuming the lens is very thin thus t = 0,
n2 n1 (n1  n2 )
 
 v1 v2 R2
n2 n1 n2  n1
   (2)
v1 v2 R2

56
 Chapter 7 Physic
(ns n ) 
 By adding eq. (1) with eq. (2), thus
 n1 n2   n2 n1  (n2  n1 ) 
            2 1

 u1 v1   v1 v2  R1  R2 
n1 n1 (n2  n1 ) (n2  n1 )
  
u1 v2 R1 R2
1 1  n2   1 1 
   1    (3)
u1 v2  n1   R1 R2 
 If u1 =  and v2 = f thus eq. (3) becomes

1
𝑓
=
(
𝑛 material
𝑛 medium
−1
)( 1
−
1
𝑅1 𝑅 2 ) Lens maker’s
equation

where 𝑓 : focal length st

𝑅1 : radius of curvature for 1 nd refracting surface
𝑅 2 : radius of curvature for 2 refracting surface
𝑛material : refractive index of the lens material 57
𝑛medium : refractive index of the medium
 Chapter 7 Physic
s
By equating eq. (3) and the lens maker’s equation, thus

1 1 1
 
u1 v2 f
therefore in general,

1 1 1
  Thin lens formula
f u v
 Note :
 If the medium is air (n1= nair=1) thus the lens maker’s
equation can be written as

1  1 1 
n  1  
f  R1 R2 
where n : refractive index of the lens material
 For thin lenses and lens maker’s equations, use the sign
convention for refraction.
58
 Chapter 7 Physic
Linear magnification, M

s
is defined as the ratio between image height, h and object
i
height, ho. hi 𝑣
𝑀 = =−
ho 𝑢
where v : image distance from optical centre
u : object distance from optical centre
1 1 1
 Since  the linear magnification equation can be
f u v
written as  1 1 1
    v
 f u v
v v 𝑣
 1 𝑀 =− +1
f u 𝑓
59
 Chapter 7 Physic
Example 7.7 :
sof a camera.
A person of height 1.75 m is standing 2.50 m in from
The camera uses a thin biconvex lens of radii of curvature
7.69 mm. The lens made from the crown glass of refractive index
1.52.
a. Calculate the focal length of the lens.
b. Determine the position of the image and its height.
c. State the characteristics of the image.
Solution : h 1.75 m; u  2 . 50 m; n 1 . 52 ;
o
R1 7.69 10  3 m; R2  7.69 10  3 m
a. By applying the lens maker’s equation in air, thus

1  1 1 
n  1  
f  R1 R2 

60
 Chapter 7 Physic
−3
𝑅 =+7.69 ×1 0 m ; 𝑅 =−7.69 × 10 m
s
Solution : h 1.75 m; u  2 . 50 m; n 1 . 52 ;
o −3
1 2
a. 1  1 1 
1.52  1  
f  7 .369 10
3
 7.69 10 3
 
f   7 . 39 10 m
b. The position of the image formed is
1 1 1 1 1 1
  3
 
f u v  7 .39 10 2 .50 v
v  7 . 41 10  3 m
(at the back of the lens)
By using the linear magnification equation, thus
hi 𝑣 hi 7.41 10  3
𝑀 = =−  
ho 𝑢 1.75 2.50
hi  5 . 19 10  3 m OR 5 . 19 mm
61
 Chapter 7 Physic
Solution :
c. The characteristics of the image are
s
 real

 inverted

 diminished

 formed at the back of the lens

62
 Chapter 7 Physic
Example 7.8 :
s index 1.66.
A thin plano-convex lens is made of glass of refractive
When an object is set up 10 cm from the lens, a virtual image ten
times its size is formed. Determine
a. the focal length of the lens,
b. the radius of curvature of the convex surface.
Solution :𝑛=1.66; 𝑢=10 cm ; 𝑀=10
a. By applying the linear magnification equation for thin lens, thus
𝑣 v   10u
𝑀 =− =10
𝑢
By using the thin lens formula, thus
1 1 1
  Virtual image
f u v
1 1 1
 
f u  10u 
63
 Chapter 7 Physic
Solution : 𝑛=1.66; 𝑢=10 cm ; 𝑀=10
s
a. 1 1 1
 
f 10  10 10 
f   11 . 1 cm
b. Since the thin lens is plano-convex thus R2 
Therefore
1  1 1 
n  1  
f  R1 R2 
1
11.1
=( 1.66 − 1 )
1
−
𝑅1 ∞
1
( )
𝑅1 =+7.33 cm

64
 Chapter 7 Physic
Example 7.9 :
smeniscus lens
The radii of curvature of the faces of a thin concave
of material of refractive index 3/2 are 20 cm and 10 cm. What is
the focal length of lens
a. in air,
b. when completely immersed in water of refractive index 4/3?
Solution : n  3 / 2
2

R1 20 cm R2 10 cm
a. By applying the lens maker’s equation in air,

1  1 1 
n  1   and n 2 n  3 / 2
f  R1 R2 

65
 Chapter 7 Physic
Solution : n 2  3 / 2
s
a. 1 3  1 1 
  1   
f  2    20  10 
f   40 cm
b. Given n1  4 / 3
By using the general lens maker’s equation, therefore
1  n2   1 1 
  1   
f  n1   R1 R2 
1  32    1 1 
 4  1   
f  3     20  10 
f   160 cm
66
 Chapter 7 Physic
7.3.4 Combination of lenses
 s
Many optical instruments, such as microscopes and
telescopes, use two convex lenses together to produce an
image.
 In both instruments, the 1st lens (closest to the object )is called
the objective and the 2nd lens (closest to the eye) is referred to
as the eyepiece or ocular.
 The image formed by the 1st lens is treated as the object for
the 2nd lens and the final image is the image formed by the 2nd
lens.
 The position of the final image in a two lenses system can be
determined by applying the thin lens formula to each lens
separately.
 The overall magnification of a two lenses system is the
product of the magnifications of the separate lenses.
where
𝑀 =𝑀 𝑀
f 1 2
𝑀 f : overall magnification st
𝑀 1 : magnification due to the nd1 lens
𝑀 2 : magnification due to the 2 lens67
 Chapter 7 Physic
Example 7.10 :
s are both
The objective and eyepiece of the compound microscope
converging lenses and have focal lengths of 15.0 mm and 25.5
mm respectively. A distance of 61.0 mm separates the lenses. The
microscope is being used to examine a sample placed 24.1 mm in
front of the objective.
a. Determine
i. the position of the final image,
ii. the overall magnification of the microscope.
b. State the characteristics of the final image.
Solution : f   15 . 0 mm; f   25 . 5 mm; d  61.0 mm;
1 2
u  24.1 mm
1
d
f1 f1 f2 f2
O u1
F1 F1 F2 F2

objective (1st) eyepiece(2nd) 68

 Chapter 7 Physic
Solution : f 1   15 . 0 mm; f 2
u1  24.1 mm s
  25 . 5 mm; d  61.0 mm;
a. i. By applying the thin lens formula for the 1st lens (objective),
1 1 1 1 1 1
   
f1 u1 v1  15.0 24.1 v1
v1  39 .7 mm (real)
d
f1 f1 f2 f2
O u1
F1 F1 F2
I1
F2

v1 u2
u 2  d  v1
u 2  61 .0  39 .7
u 2  21 . 3 mm
69
 Chapter 7 Physic
Solution : f 1   15 . 0 mm; f 2
u1  24.1 mm s
  25 . 5 mm; d  61.0 mm;
a. i. and the position of the final image formed by the 2nd lens
1 1 1 1 1 1
(eyepiece) is    
f 2 u 2 v2  25 .5 21 .3 v 2
v 2   129 mm
(in front of the 2nd lens)
d
f1 f1 f2 f2
O u1
F1 F1 F2
I1
F2

I2 v1 u2

v 2 129 mm 70
 Chapter 7 Physic
Solution : f 1   15 . 0 mm; f 2
u1  24.1 mm s
  25 . 5 mm; d  61.0 mm;
a. ii. The overall (total) magnification of the microscope is given by

𝑀 f =𝑀 1 𝑀 2 where𝑀 =− 𝑣 1and 𝑀 =− 𝑣2
1 2
𝑢1 𝑢2
𝑀f = −
( )( )
𝑣1
𝑢1
× −
𝑣2
𝑢2
𝑀f = − (
39.7
24.1
× − )(
(− 129 )
21.3 )
b. The characteristics of the final image are
𝑀 f =− 9.98

 virtual

 inverted

 magnified

 formed in front of the 1st and 2nd lenses.

71
 Chapter 7 Physic
Exercise 7.3 :
1. a. s lens
A glass of refractive index 1.50 plano-concave
has a focal length of 21.5 cm. Calculate the radius of the
concave surface.
b. A rod of length 15.0 cm is placed horizontally along
the principal axis of a converging lens of focal length 10.0
cm. If the closest end of the rod is 20.0 cm from the lens
calculate the length of the image formed.
ANS. : 10.8 cm; 6.00 cm
2. An object is placed 16.0 cm to the left of a lens. The lens
forms an image which is 36.0 cm to the right of the lens.
a. Calculate the focal length of the lens and state the
type of the lens.
b. If the object is 8.00 mm tall, calculate the height of the
image.
c. Sketch a labelled ray diagram for the case above.
ANS. : 11.1 cm; 1.8 cm
72
 Chapter 7 Physic
converging lens, a sharp image is formed on s
3. When a small light bulb is placed on the left side of a
a screen placed
30.0 cm on the right side of the lens. When the lens is moved
5.0 cm to the right, the screen has to be moved 5.0 cm to the
left so that a sharp image is again formed on the screen.
What is the focal length of the lens?
ANS. : 10.0 cm
4. A converging lens of focal length 8.00 cm is 20.0 cm to the left
of a converging lens of focal length 6.00 cm. A coin is placed
10.0 cm to the left of the 1st lens. Calculate
a. the distance of the final image from the 1st lens,
b. the total magnification of the system.
ANS. : 24.6 cm; 0.924
5. A converging lens with a focal length of 4.0 cm is to the left of
a second identical lens. When a feather is placed 12 cm to the
left of the first lens, the final image is the same size and
orientation as the feather itself. Calculate the separation
between the lenses.
ANS. : 12.0 cm 73
 Chapter 7 Physic
Learning Outcome: s
7.4 Huygen’s principle (½ hour)
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
 State Huygens’ principle.

Include spherical and plane wave fronts.
 Sketch and explain the wave front of light after passing
through a single slit and obstacle using Huygens’
principle.

74
 Chapter 7 Physic
7.4 Huygen’s principle
7.4.1 Wave fronts
s
 is defined as a line or surface, in the path of a wave motion,
on which the disturbances at every point have the same
phase.
 Figure 7.17 shows the wavefront of the sinusoidal waves.
wavefront

A
D

B
v
E

C
F

Figure 7.17 λ
 Line joining all point of adjacent wave, e.g. A, B and C or
D,E and F are in phase
 Wave front always perpendicular to the direction of wave
propagation. 75
 Chapter 7 Physic
Circular wave fronts as shown in Figure 7.18 s
Type of wave fronts
 are produced by
a point source generates two-dimensional waves.

circular wave front


ray

point source

Figure 7.18
76
 Chapter 7 Physic
s
Spherical wave fronts as shown in Figure 7.19 are produced

by a point source generates three-dimensional waves.

spherical wave fronts

point source

rays

Figure 7.19 77
 Chapter 7 Physic
s waves
Plane wave fronts as shown in Figures 7.20a and 7.20b are

produced by a point source generates three-dimensional
at large distance from the source.

plane wave front

rays

plane wave front Figure 7.20a : (3-D)

rays

Figure 7.20b : (2-D) 78

 Chapter 7 Physic
is defined as a line represents the direction ofs
Ray
 travel of a
wave.
 It is at right angle to the wave fronts as shown in Figure 7.21.

ray

Wave front
λ

Beam of light Figure 7.21

 is a collection of rays or a column of light.

 parallel beam, e.g. a laser beam (shown in Figure 7.22a)

Source of light from infinity

Figure 7.22a
79
 Chapter 7 Physic

s
divergent beam, e.g. a lamp near you (shown in Figure 7.22b)

Figure 7.22b
 convergent beam as shown in Figure 7.22c.

Figure 7.22c 80
 Chapter 7 Physic
7.4.2 Huygens’ principle s
 states that every point on a wave front can be considered as
a source of secondary wavelets that spread out in the
forward direction at the speed of the wave. The new wave
front is the envelope of all the secondary wavelets - i.e. the
tangent to all of them.

secondary wave front

wavelets

Figure 7.23 81
 Chapter 7 Physic
a. Construction of new wave front for a plane waves
Application of Huygens’ principle


If the wave speed is v, hence in time t the distance

travels by the wavelet is s = vt.

A
P1 A’
Q1 
From Huygens’ Principle, points P1, P2, P3 and P4 on

the wave front AB are the sources of secondary

P2 Q2
wavelets.


P3 Q3 From the points, draw curves of radius s.


Then draw a straight line A’B’ which is tangent to the
P4 s Q4
B’ curves at points Q1,Q2,Q3 and Q4
B

Hence, line A’B’ is the new wave front after t second.

Figure 7.24

82
 Chapter 7 Physic
s
b. Construction of new wave front for a circular wave


A’ Explanation as in the construction of new wave
Q1
front for a plane wave front.


But the wave front A’B’ is a curve touching points
A Q2
P1 s Q1,Q2,Q3 and Q4.

P2

The curve A’B’ is the new (circular) wave front after
source
P3 t second.

P4
B Q3

Q4
B’

ray
Figure 7.25
83
 Chapter 7 Physic
c. Diffraction of wave at a single slit

s
Huygens’ principle can be used to explain the diffraction of wave.


Each of the point in Figure 7.26, acts as a secondary source of wavelets (red

circular arc)


The tangent to the wavelets from points 2, 3 and 4 is a plane wave front.


But at the edges, points 1 and 5 are the last points that produce wavelets.


Huygens’ principle suggest that in conforming to the curved shape of the

wavelets near the edges, the new wave front bends or diffracts around the

edges - applied to all kinds of waves.

Figure 7.26
84
 Chapter 7 Physic
Learning Outcome: s
7.5 Constructive interference and destructive
interference (½ hour)
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
 Define coherence.
 State the conditions to observe interference of light.
 State the conditions of constructive and destructive
interference for in phase and antiphase.

85
 Physic
Chapter 7
7.5 s
Constructive interference and
destructive interference
7.5.1 Interference of light
 Light wave is an electromagnet waves (emw).
 It consists of varying electric field E and varying magnetic
field B which are perpendicular to each other as shown in
Figure 7.27.

Figure 7.27

Electric field: E = E0 sin (ωt-kx)

Magnetic field: B = B0 sin (ωt-kx) 86

 Chapter 7 Physic

two or more waves which overlaps or superposed s at a point
Interference is defined as the effect of interaction between

and at a particular time from the sources.

 For light the Interference is occurred when two light waves meet
at a point, a bright or a dark region will be produced in
accordance to the Principle of superposition.
 Principle of superposition states the resultant displacement
at any point is the vector sum of the displacements due to
the two light waves.
 Constructive interference is defined as a reinforcement of
amplitudes of light waves that will produce a bright fringe
(maximum).
 Destructive interference is defined as a total cancellation of
amplitudes of light waves that will produce a dark fringe
(minimum).
 Monochromatic light is defined as a light of a single
wavelength or freqency.

87
 Chapter 7 Physic
7.5.2 s
Conditions for permanent interference
 Permanent interference between two sources of light only take
place if they are coherent sources. It means
 the sources must have the same wavelength or frequency.
 the sources must have a constant phase difference

between them.
 The light waves that are interfering must have the same or
approximately of amplitude to obtain total cancellation at
minimum or to obtain a good contrast at maximum.
 The distance between the coherent sources should be as
small as possible of the light wavelength ( ).

88
 Chapter 7 Physic
7.5.3 Path difference, L

s
is defined as the difference in distance from each source
to a particular point.

x1

S1 x2

Figure 7.28
screen
S2
L

Path difference, L = |S2P  S1P|

= |x2 –x1| 89
 Chapter 7 Physic
Interference of two coherent sources in phase
 Path difference for constructive interferences
 S1 and S2 are two coherent sources in phase
S1 x1

P (maximum)

S2
x2

 

Figure 7.29 90
 Chapter 7 Physic
Δ   2 m π where m  0 , 1, 2s
 A bright fringe is observed at P thus
,...
 At P, E 1 P  E 0 sin(  t  k x1 )
E 2 P  E 0 sin(  t  k x2 )
then
Δ   ( t  k x2 )  ( t  k x1 )
Δ   k ( x1  x 2 ) since k  2 and ( x1  x 2 )   L
2 
Δ  L order
 2
therefore
2m  L L m
 Note :

When where m  0 , 1, 2 ,.....
m=0 Central bright fringe  : wavelength
(zeroth order bright)
m= 1 1st bright fringe (1st order bright)
m= 2 2nd bright fringe (2nd order bright) 91
 Chapter 7 Physic
S and S are two coherent sources in phases
 Path difference for destructive interference

1 2

Q (minimum)
x1

S1

x2

S2

 

Figure 7.30 92
 Chapter 7 Physic
Δ   2 m  1π where m  0 , 1, 2s
 A dark fringe is observed at Q thus
,...
 At Q, E 1 Q  E 0 sin(  t  k x1 )
E 2 Q  E 0 sin(  t  k x2 )
then
Δ   ( t  k x2 )  ( t  k x1 )
Δ   k ( x1  x 2 )
2
Δ  L

therefore 2 m  1  2  L  1
 L  m   
 Note :
  2
When where m  0 , 1, 2 ,.....
m=0 1st dark fringe (zeroth order dark)
m= 1 2nd dark fringe (1st order dark)
m= 2 3rd dark fringe (2nd order dark)
93
 Chapter 7 Physic
s
Interference pattern for two coherent sources in phase


Fringe  m L
2
nd
bright 4π 2 2
3
2
nd
dark 3π 1 2

1
st
bright 2π 1 
1
S1 1
st
dark π 0 2

Central bright 0 0 0
1
1
st
dark π 0 2

S2 1
st
bright 2π 1 
3
2
nd
dark 3π 1 2

2
nd
bright 4π 2 2
screen

Figure 7.31

94
 Chapter 7 Physic
Interference of two coherent sources in antiphase
 Path difference for constructive interferences
 S1 and S2 are two coherent sources in antiphase
P (maximum)
x1

S1
x2

S2

 

Figure 7.32 95
 Chapter 7 Physic
A bright fringe is observed at P thus
s


Δ   2 m π where m  1, 2 ,...

 At P,E 1 P  E 0 sin(  t  k x1 )
E 2 P  E 0 sin(  t  k x2   )
then
Δ   ( t  k x2   )  ( t  k x1 )
Δ   k ( x1  x 2 )  
 2 
Δ   L   
  
therefore 2 m  
2   1
  L     L  m   
 Note :
    2
When where m  0 , 1, 2 ,.....
m=0 1st bright fringe (zeroth order bright)
m= 1 2nd bright fringe (1st order bright)
m= 2 3rd bright fringe (2nd order bright)
96
 Chapter 7 Physic
 Path difference for destructive interference

1 2
s
S and S are two coherent sources in antiphase

S1
x1

Q (minimum)

S2 x2

 

Figure 7.33
97
 Chapter 7 Physic
Δ   2 m  1π where m  0 , 1, 2s
 A dark fringe is observed at Q thus
,...
 At Q,E 1 Q  E 0 sin(  t  k x1 )
E 2 Q  E 0 sin(  t  k x2   )
then
Δ   ( t  k x2   )  ( t  k x1 )
Δ   k ( x1  x 2 )  
 2 
Δ   L   
  
therefore   2 
2 m  1  L    L m
 Note :
  
where m  0 , 1, 2 ,.....
When
m=0 Central dark fringe (zeroth order dark)
m= 1 1st dark fringe (1st order dark)
m= 2 2nd dark fringe (2nd order dark)
98
 Chapter 7 Physic
s
Interference pattern for two coherent sources in antiphase


Fringe  m L
2
nd
dark 5π 2 2
3
2
nd
bright 4π 1 2

1
st
dark 3π 1 
1
S1 1
st
bright 2π 0 2

Central dark  0 0
1
1
st
bright 2π 0 2

S2 1
st
dark 3π 1 
3
2
nd
bright 4π 1 2

2
nd
dark 5π 2 2
screen

Figure 7.34

99
 Chapter 7 Physic
Table 7.4 shows the summary of chapter 7.5.3.
s


Two Coherent
Bright fringe Dark fringe
sources

L m  1
 L  m   
 2
In phase m  0 , 1, 2 ,...
m  0 , 1, 2 ,...
Δ 2mπ Δ   ( 2 m  1) π
m  0 ,1, 2 ,... m  0 ,1, 2 ,...

 1 L m
 L  m   
 2 m  0 , 1, 2 ,...
Antiphase
m  0 , 1, 2 ,...
Δ 2mπ Δ   ( 2 m  1) π
m 1, 2,3,... m  0 ,1, 2 ,...
Table 7.4 100
 Chapter 7 Physic
Learning Outcome: s
7.6 Interference of transmitted light through
double-slits (2 hours)
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
 Use:

mD
ym  for bright fringes (maxima)
d

𝑦𝑚 =
( 𝑚+
1
2)𝜆 𝐷 for dark fringes (minima),

𝑑
where m = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, … .
 Use expression D and
y 
d
explain the effect of changing any of the variables.
101
 Physic
Chapter 7
7.6 Interference of transmittedslight
through double-slits
7.6.1 Methods of obtaining two coherent sources
Division of wave front

A slit S is placed at equal distance from slits S1 and S2

as shown in figure.


Light waves from S that arrived at S1 and S2 are in
S1
S phase.


S2 Therefore, both slits S1 and S2 are two new coherent
monochromatic light
sources, e.g. in Young’s double slit experiment
source

single slit double slits

Figure 7.35
102
 Chapter 7 Physic
Division of amplitude
s

The incident wave front is divided into two waves by
incident ray 1 2 partial reflection and partial transmission.


Both reflected waves 1 and 2 are coherent and will result
partial reflection
in interference when they superpose.

air 
e.g. Newton’s ring, air wedge fringes and thin film

interference.
partial transmission
film t

air

Figure 7.36

103
 Chapter 7 Physic
7.6.2 Young’s double-slit experiment
 s double-slit
Figure 7.37 shows the schematic diagram of Young’s
experiment. Intensity

Max
m=2
Min
Max m=1

S1
Min
S Max m=0
monochromatic light beam S2 Min
Max m = 1
Min
single slit double slits
Max m = 2

Figure 7.37 screen

interference pattern

104
 Chapter 7 Physic
s
Explanation of Young’s double-slit experiment by using
Huygens’ principle
 Wave front from light source falls on a narrow slit S and
diffraction occurs.
 Every point on the wave front that falls on S acts as sources of
secondary wavelets that will produce a new wave front that
propagate to slits S1 and S2 .
 S1 and S2 are produced two new sources of coherent waves in
phase because they originate from the same wave front and
their distance from S are equal.
 An interference pattern consisting of bright and dark fringes is
formed on the screen as shown in Figure 7.37.
 The bright fringes are occurred when the light from slits S 1 and
S2 superposes constructively.
 The dark fringes are occurred when the light from slits S1 and S2
superposes destructively.
105
 Chapter 7 Physic
Derivation of Young’s double-slit equations
 s
Equation for separation between central bright fringe and
mth bright fringe
M
(m+1)th bright
y
P
mth bright

 ym y m 1
S1


d Q Central bright
O
N

S2 m

D
double-slit screen
Figure 7.38 106
 Chapter 7 Physic
Suppose P in Figure 7.38 is the mth
s
order bright fringe, thus


S 2 P  S1 P  m 

Let OP = ym = distance from P to O .
 In practice d is very small (<1mm) and D>>d, then S1N
meets PQ at right angle. Hence

NP = S1P then S2N = S2P NP = m .
 angle PQO = angle S2S1N =
 From the figure, S2 N m
ΔS2S1N sin   
S 2S1 d
PO y m
ΔPQO tan   
Since θ is small, thus
QO D
sin   tan 
m y m

d D 107
 Chapter 7 Physic


bright fringes, y is given by

m
s
Therefore, the separation between central bright and m th

mD
ym  (7.1)
d
where m : order  0 , 1, 2 ,...
 : wavelength
D : distance betw een double - slits and the screen
d : separation betw een double - slits
 Note: For bright fringes

m 0 Central bright fringe (Zeroth order maximum)

m  1 1st bright fringe (1st order maximum)
m  2 2nd bright fringe (2nd order maximum)
m  3 3rd bright fringe (3rd order maximum)

108
 Chapter 7 Physic


m dark fringe
th s
Equation for separation between central bright fringe and

R mth order dark

y
(m1)th order dark

 𝑦𝑚
S1


d Q
O
Central bright
N

 1
S2  m  
 2
D
double-slit screen
Figure 7.39
109
 Chapter 7 Physic
 Suppose R in Figure 7.39 is the mth
 1 s
order dark fringe, thus

S 2 R  S1R  m   
 2
 Let OR = xm = distance from R to O .
 In practice d is very small (<1mm) and D>>d, then S1N
meets RQ at right angle. Hence,
 1
 NR = S R thenS N S R  NR   m 
1 2 2 
 2
 angle RQO = angle S S N =
2 1
 From the figure, S2 N  1
ΔS2S1N sin    m  
S 2S1  2 d
RO 𝑦 𝑚
ΔRQO tan 𝜃= =
QO 𝐷
𝑦𝑚
( )
Since θ is small, thus 1 𝜆
sin   tan  𝑚+ =
2 𝑑 𝐷
110
 Chapter 7 Physic


order dark fringes, y is given by

m
s
Therefore, the separation between central bright and m th

𝑦 𝑚= 𝑚+(1 𝜆𝐷
2 𝑑 ) (7.2)

where m : order  0 , 1, 2 ,...

 Note: For dark fringes
m 0 1st dark fringe (Zeroth order minimum)
m  1 2nd dark fringe (1st order minimum)
m  2 3rd dark fringe (2nd order minimum)
m  3 4th dark fringe (3rd order minimum)

111
 Chapter 7 Physic

s
Equation for separation between successive (consecutive)
bright or dark fringes, y (Refer to Figure 7.38)
 is given by
mD D
 y  y m 1  y m where y m  and y m 1  m  1
d d
D mD
 y  m  1 
d d
D
y  (7.3)
d
where 𝛥 𝑦 :separation between consecutive bright
or dark fringes
 : wavelength
D : distance betw een double - slits and the screen
d : separation betw een double - slits
112
 Chapter 7 Physic
Appearance of Young’s double-slit experiment
 From the equation (7.3),
s
D
y 
d
  y depends on :
 the wavelength of light, 
 the distance apart, d of the double slits,
 distance between slits and the screen, D
 Explanation for the above factors:
 if  is short and thus Δy decreases for fixed D and d. The
interference fringes are closer to each other and vice-versa.
 if the distance apart d of the slits diminished, Δy increased
for fixed D and  and vice-versa.
 if D increases Δy also increases for fixed  and vice-versa.

113
 Chapter 7 Physic

sto large
if a source slit S (Figure 7.37) is widened the fringes
gradually disappear. The slit S then equivalent
number of narrow slits, each producing its own fringe system
at different places. The bright and dark fringes of different
systems therefore overlap, giving rise to a uniform
illumination.
 if one of the slit, S1 or S2 is covered up, the diffraction
fringes pattern appear.
 if the source slit S is moved nearer the double slits, Δy is
unaffected but their intensity increases.
 if the experiment is carried out in a different medium, for
example water, the fringe separation Δy decreased or
increased depending on the wavelength, λ of the
medium.
 if white light is used the central bright fringe is white, and
the fringes on either side are coloured. Violet is the colour
nearer to the central fringe and red is farther away as shown
in Figure 7.40. 114
 Chapter 7 Physic
s
Figure 7.40
 Table 7.5 shows the range of wavelength for colours of visible
light.
Colour Range of λ/ nm
Violet 400 – 450
Blue 450 – 520
Green 520 – 560
Yellow 560 – 600
Orange 600 – 625
Red 625 - 700

Table 7.5 115

 Chapter 7 Physic
Example 7.11 :
s the slits. If
A double-slits pattern is view on a screen 1.00 m from
the third order minima are 25.0 cm apart, determine
a. the ratio of wavelength and separation between the slits,
b. the distance between the first order minimum and fourth order
maximum on the screen.
Solution : 𝐷=1.00 m ; 𝛥 𝑦 =0.25 m; 𝑚=3
3
a. 3rd order minimum
𝑦3
𝛥 𝑦3
S1
d zeroth order maximum
S2
𝑦3
D 3rd order minimum
From the figure,
𝛥 𝑦 3 0.25
𝑦 3= =
2 2
𝑦 3=0.125 m 116
 Chapter 7 Physic
Solution :𝐷=1.00 m ; 𝛥 𝑦 3=0.25 m; 𝑚=3
s bright and
a. By using the equation of separation between central

( )𝜆 𝐷thus
( )
1 𝜆𝐷
mth order dark 1
fringes,
𝑦 𝑚= 𝑚+ 𝑦 3= 3+
2 𝑑 2 𝑑
 1   1 .00 
0 .125  3  
 2 d

3 .57 10  2
d

( )
b. The separation between central max and the 1st order min. is
1 𝜆𝐷
𝑦 1= 1+
2 𝑑
𝜆𝐷
𝑦 1=1.5
𝑑
117
 Chapter 7 Physic
b. and the separation between central max and thes
Solution :
4 order max.
th

(m = 4) is given by
mD D
ym  y 4 4
d d
Therefore the distance between the first order minimum and
fourth order maximum on the screen is
𝛥 𝑑= 𝑦 4 − 𝑦 1
 D   D 
 d  4    1 .5 
 d   d 
D
 d  2 .5
d
 
d  2 . 5 3 . 57 10  2 1 . 00 
 d  8 . 93 10  2 m
118
 Chapter 7 Physic
Example 7.12 :
sa double-slit
a. How would you expect the interference pattern of
experiment to change if white light is used instead of
monochromatic light?
b. Describe the changes that would be observed in a double-slit
interference pattern if the entire experiment were submerged in
water.
(Physics, 3rd edition, J. S. Walker, Q4&Q6, p.963)
Solution :
a. The locations of bright and dark fringes depends on the
wavelength of light. Therefore, if white light is used in a
double-slit experiment, each bright fringe will show some
separation into colours, giving a “rainbow” effect.

119
 Chapter 7 Physic
Solution :
s
b. Submerging the double-slit experiment in water would reduce
the wavelength of the light from  to  /n, where n = 1.33 is
the refraction index of water. Therefore, the bright or dark
fringe separation would be reduced, according to the
equation below:
D
y 
d
It follows that the interference pattern fringes get closer to each
other.

120
 Chapter 7 Physic
Example 7.13 :
s light of
In a Young’s double-slit experiment, when a monochromatic
wavelength 600 nm shines on the double slits, the fringe
separation of the interference pattern produced is 7.0 mm. When
another monochromatic light source is used, the fringe separation
is 5.0 mm. Calculate the wavelength of the second light.
Solution :  1  600 10  9 m;  y 1  7 . 0 10  3 m;
y 2  5 . 0 10  3 m
1st case:
y1
S1 y1
d Central of interference pattern
S2

D
By applying the fringe separation equation, thus

 y1 
1 D
7 .0 10  3 
600 10 D9
(1)
d d 121
 Chapter 7 Physic
Solution : 1  500 10  9 m;  y1  7 . 0 10  3
y 2  5 . 0 10  3 m
s
m;
2nd case:
y 2
S1 y 2
d Central of interference pattern
S2

D
2 D 2 D
y 2  3
5 .0 10  (2)
d 3
d
(2) (1): 5 .0 10 2
3

7 .0 10 600 10  9
 2  429 10  9 m OR 4 29 nm

122
 Chapter 7 Physic
Example 7.14 :
S1
s A

1.2 mm

S2
2.5 m

Figure 7.41 B
Figure 7.41 shows two coherent sources (S1 and S2) of light in
phase. The separation of S1 and S2 is 1.2 mm and the screen is
2.5 m from the sources.The frequency of the light is 5.77  1014
Hz. Calculate
a. the wavelength of the light used
b. the separation between two consecutive bright fringes if the
experiment is carried out in air.
(The speed of light in vacuum, c = 3.00  108 m s1)

123
 Chapter 7 Physic
s
3
Solution : d 1 . 2 10 m; D  2 . 5 m
14
a. Given f  5 . 77 10 Hz
By applying the wave speed equation, thus
c f

3 . 00 10 8   5 . 77 10 1 4 
9
  520 10 m OR 5 20 nm
b. By using the equation of fringe separation, thus
D
y 
d
y 

520 10  9 2 .5  
1 .2 10  3
3
y 1 . 08 10 m
124
 Chapter 7 Physic
Exercise 7.4 :
s 589-nm light
1. Young’s double-slit experiment is performed with
and a distance of 2.00 m between the slits and the screen.
The tenth interference minimum is observed 7.26 mm from
the central maximum. Determine the spacing of the slits.
(Physics for scientists and engineers,6th edition,Serway&Jewett,
Q37.5, p.1198)
ANS. : 1.54 mm
2. A Young’s interference experiment is performed with
monochromatic light. The separation between the slits is
0.500 mm, and the interference pattern on a screen 3.30 m
away shows the first side maximum 3.40 mm from the centre
of the pattern. What is the wavelength?
(Physics for scientists and engineers,6th edition,Serway&Jewett,
Q37.2, p.1197)
ANS. : 515 nm

125
 Chapter 7 Physic
3. A coherent light that contains two wavelength,s660 nm (red)
and 470 nm (blue) passes through two narrow slits
separated by 0.3 mm and the interference pattern is observed
on a screen 5.00 m from the slits. Determine the
distance between the first order bright fringes for each
wavelength.
(University physics,11th edition, Young&Freedman, Q35.14, p.1362)
ANS. : 3.17 mm
4. A monochromatic light of wavelength 560 nm passes through
a Young’s double-slit system of unknown slit separation. After
that, the slits is illuminated by a monochromatic light of
unknown wavelength. It was observed that the 4th order
minimum of the known wavelength light overlapped with the
5th order maximum of the unknown wavelength light on a
screen. Calculate the wavelength of the unknown wavelength
light.
ANS. : 504 nm 126
 Chapter 7 Physic
Learning Outcome: s
7.7 Interference of reflected light in thin films
(2 hours)
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
 Identify the occurrence of phase change upon reflection.
 Describe with the aid of a diagram the interference of
light in thin films at normal incidence.
 Use the following equations for reflected light with no
phase difference (non-reflective coating):
Constructive interference : 2nt = m
Destructive interference : 2nt = (m + ½ )
 Use the following equations for reflected light of phase
difference  rad (reflective coating):
Constructive interference : 2nt = (m + ½ )
Destructive interference : 2nt = m
where m = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, …
 Explain the application of thin films (eg: solar panel,
glass tint). 127
 Chapter 7 Physic
7.7 s in
Interference of reflected light
thin films
 Interference due to reflected waves is observed in many
everyday circumstances such as bright colours reflected from oil
film on water and soap bubble.
 The reflected waves can change their phase in two ways:
 The phase changes in proportion to the distance of the
waves travel.
 The phase changes as a result of the reflection process
itself.
 Optical path is defined as the product between a distance
travelled by light and the refractive index of the medium
OR
L  nl
where L : optical path
n : refractive index of a medium
l : distance travelled by light in the medium
128
 Chapter 7Physic
7.7.1 Phase changes due to reflection
 s index
A light wave travelling in a medium of lower refractive
(n1) when reflected from a medium’s surface of higher
refractive index (n2) undergoes a  radian phase change as
shown in Figure 7.42a.
 radian phase change
incident wave
incident pulse

n1 n2
transmitted pulse
reflected wave transmitted wave

Note:
    rad n1 n2 reflected pulse

L  Figure 7.42a Figure 7.42b: string analogous
2 129
 Chapter 7 Physic

s
A light wave travelling in a medium of higher refractive index
(n ) when reflected from a medium’s surface of lower
2
refractive index (n1) undergoes no phase change as shown in
Figure 7.43a.
no phase change
incident wave
incident pulse

n2 n1

reflected wave transmitted wave transmitted pulse

Note:
 0 n2 n1 reflected pulse

L  0 Figure 7.43a Figure 7.43b: string analogous

130
 Chapter 7Physic
s
7.7.2 Interference from thin films on a denser
medium
 Figure 7.44 shows the light waves reflected from the upper and
lower surfaces of a thin film (refractive index, n) on a denser
medium.  rad phase  rad phase
change change
E
F
A

1 2
n1 1 .0

n 1 . 5
B D
t : thickness of
thin film
C

n 2  3 .5

Figure 7.44 131

 Chapter 7 Physic

to the surface (point B) s
When an incident ray falls on a thin film surface almost normal

 division of amplitude occurs,

 part of ray are reflected (ray 1 ray ABE),
 part of ray are refracted and reflected (ray 2 ray ABCDF),
 point D very close to B (BC and CD become straight line).
 At B,

the reflected ray (ray 1) undergoes  radian phase
change.
 because the ray 1 reflected from a surface of higher
refractive index (denser medium).
 At C,

the reflected ray (ray 2) undergoes  radian phase
change.
 Therefore both rays 1 and 2 are two coherent sources in phase
      is 0
because the phase difference,
132
 Chapter 7 Physic


 L  ABC DF  ABE s
The optical path difference between rays 1 and 2 is given by

L  BC  C D
 L  nt  nt  L  2 nt
 Constructive interference:
where
2 nt  m   : w avelength of light in vacuum
m  0 , 1, 2 ,...
 Destructive interference:

 1  where
2 nt  m    m  0 , 1, 2 ,...
 2
 Example of thin film on a denser medium:
 Non-reflective (anti-reflective) coating
 Oil film on water and etc…

133
 Physic
Chapter 7

s
7.7.3 Interference from thin films on a less dense
medium
 Figure 7.45 shows the light waves reflected from the upper and
lower surfaces of a thin film (refractive index, n) in a less dense
medium.  rad phase no phase
change change
E
F
A

1 2
n air 1 .0

n 1 . 33
B D
t : thickness of
thin film
C

n air 1 .0

Figure 7.45 134

 Chapter 7 Physic

to the surface (point B) s
When an incident ray falls on a thin film surface almost normal

 division of amplitude occurs,

 part of ray are reflected (ray 1 ray ABE),
 part of ray are refracted and reflected (ray 2 ray ABCDF),
 point D very close to B (BC and CD become straight line).
 At B,

the reflected ray (ray 1) undergoes  radian phase
change.
 because the ray 1 reflected from a surface of higher
refractive index (denser medium).
 At C,
 the reflected ray (ray 2) undergoes no phase change.
 Therefore both rays 1 and 2 are two coherent sources
antiphase because the phase difference,   is
     0   rad
and meet at a point produces interference pattern. 135
 Chapter 7 Physic
s
The optical path difference between rays 1 and 2 is given by


 L  ABC DF  ABE

L  BC  CD 
 2 
 L  nt  nt   L  2 nt 
2
 Constructive interference:
2
  1  where
2 nt   m  2 nt  m    m  0 , 1, 2 ,...
2  2
 Destructive interference:
  1 where
2 nt   m    2 nt  m  m  0 , 1, 2 ,...
2  2
 Example of a thin film on a less dense medium:
 Soap bubbles
 Reflective coating and etc…

136
 Chapter 7 Physic
Example 7.15 :
s index
A non-reflective coating of magnesium fluoride of refractive
1.38 covers the camera lens of refractive index 1.52. The coating
prevents reflection of yellow-green light of wavelength in vacuum
565 nm. Determine the minimum non zero thickness of the
magnesium fluoride.
(Physics,7th edition, Cutnell&Johnson, Q48, p.886)
Solution :   565 10  9 m
 rad phase  rad phase
change change

1 2 2 coherent sources in
n1 1 .0 phase

n 1 . 38 t min
n 2 1 .52 137
 Chapter 7 Physic
snon-reflective
9
Solution :   565 10 m
By using the condition of destructive interference for
coating, thus
 1
2 nt  m   
 2
For minimum thickness of MgF2,m  0

 1
2 nt min  0   
 2
1
2 1 .38 t min   565 10  9 
 2
7
t min 1 . 02 10 m
OR
102 nm
138
 Chapter 7 Physic
Example 7.16 :
s 1.30 in air.
White light is incident on a soap film of refractive index
The reflected light looks bluish because the red light of wavelength
670 nm is absent in the reflection.
a. State the condition for destructive interference.
b. What is the minimum thickness of the soap film?
(Physics,3rd edition, J.S.Walker, Q26, p.966)
Solution :   670 10  9 m
 rad phase no phase
change change

2 coherent sources
1 2
antiphase
n1 1 .0

n 1 . 30 t min
n1 1 .0 139
 Chapter 7 Physic
a. The condition of destructive interference is givens
9
Solution :   670 10 m
by
2 nt  m 
b. For minimum thickness of soap film, m 1
2 nt min  1

2 1 . 30 t min  670 10  9 
t min  2 . 58 10  7 m
OR
2 58 nm

140
 Chapter 7 Physic
Exercise 7.5 :
sSunlight falls
1. A thin film of gasoline floats on a puddle of water.
almost perpendicularly on the film and reflects into your eyes.
Although the sunlight is white, since it contains all colours, the
film has a yellow hue, because destructive interference has
occurred eliminating the colour of blue ( =469 nm) from the
reflected light. If the refractive indices for gasoline and water
are 1.40 and 1.33 respectively, Calculate the minimum
thickness of the film.
ANS. : 168 nm
2. White light is incident normally on a thin soap film (n =1.33)
suspended in air.
a. What are the two minimum thickness that will constructively
reflect yellow light of wavelength 590 nm?
b. What are the two minimum thickness that will destructively
reflect yellow light of wavelength 590 nm?
(Physics,3rd edition, J.S.Walker, Q34, p.966)
ANS. : 110 nm, 330 nm ; 220 nm, 440 nm ;
141
 Chapter 7 Physic
Learning Outcome: s
7.8 Diffraction by a single slit (2 hours)
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
 Define diffraction.
 Explain with the aid of a diagram the diffraction of a
single slit.
 Use:

𝑚𝜆𝐷
𝑦 𝑚= for dark fringes (minima)
𝑎

𝑦 𝑚=
( 1
𝑚+ 𝜆 𝐷
2 ) for bright fringes (maxima),
𝑎
where m = ±1, ±2, ±3, ...

142
 Chapter 7 Physic
7.8 Diffraction by a single slit
s
7.8.1 Diffraction of light
 is defined as the bending of light waves as they travel around
obstacles or pass through an aperture or slit comparable to
the wavelength of the light waves.
 Figures 7.46a, 7.46b and 7.46c show the bending of plane
wavefront.
λ λ λ

Figure 7.46a: Figure 7.46b: Figure 7.46c:

obstacle slit, a >  slit, a  
143
 Chapter 7 Physic
7.8.2 Diffraction by a single silt
 s by a single
Figure 7.47 shows an apparatus setup of diffraction
slit.
rd
3 minimum
nd
2 maximum
nd
2 minimum
1 st
1 maximum
st
2 1 minimum

Central maximum

S 2 st
1 1
1
st
minimum
maximum
nd
2 minimum
nd
2 maximum
rd
3 minimum
intensity
single slit
screen
Figure 7.47
where 𝜃 : angle of diffraction 144
 Chapter 7 Physic
Explanation of single slit diffraction experiment

s
Wavefront from light source falls on a narrow slit S and
diffraction occurs.
 Every point on the wavefront that falls on S acts as sources of
secondary wavelets and superposed each another to form an
interference pattern on the screen as shown in Figure 7.47.
 The central fringe is bright (maximum) and widen compare to
other bright fringes.
 The central fringe has the highest intensity compare to the
other bright fringes.
 The intensity of bright fringes reduce as the distance
increase from the central bright fringe.
 Other rays with angle θ2 and θ1 will produce minimum and
maximum on both sides of the central maximum.

145
 Chapter 7 Physic
Derivation of single slit diffraction equations
 s
Equation for separation between central maximum (bright)
and mth minimum (dark) fringes P mth minimum

ym
ip
str
st
1 rip
t
a A θ1 nd s
2
2 θ1
a aE Central
a C sin 1 Q maximum
2
2
B
a
sin 1
2
D
where a : slit width screen
D : distance betw een single slit and screen
Figure 7.48 146
 Chapter 7 Physic
s
A single slit is split into two equal parts, AC and CB. A,C and

B are new sources of secondary wavelets. (Huygen’s
principle)
 When the wavelets from A, C and B superpose, interference
will occur at P.
 As AB is very small, thus
 AE is perpendicular to CP and AP = EP,

 the outgoing rays are considered parallel,

 and therefore the path difference at P between ray AP

and CP is : a
 L  CE  sin  1
2
 Consider two narrow strips as shown in Figure 7.48, for the
two strips superposed destructively thus both strip of light
must in antiphase to each another which is equivalence to a
path difference of ½.
 If the 1st minimum (1st order minimum) is at P, hence :
a 
 L  sin  1  a sin  1  
2 2 147
 Chapter 7 Physic
s in Figures
For the 2 minimum and 3 minimum, AB is split into 4
 nd rd

equal parts, 6 equal parts and so on as shown

7.49 and 7.50.

ip
s t s t r ri p
a st strip a d t
1 n s p
1 2 rd stri
4 nd strip 6 3 th trip
2 s
rd strip 4 th strip
p
a
3
a 5 th stri
th strip
4 6

θ2 θ3

2 3

nd nd a  a 
sin  2  sin  3 
rd rd
2 minimum (2 3 minimum (3 order

order minimum) 4 2 minimum) 6 2

a sin  2  2  a sin  3  3 

Figure 7.49 Figure 7.50

148
 Chapter 7 Physic
 In general, for minima (dark fringes)
s
𝑎 sin 𝜃 𝑚=𝑚 𝜆
where 𝑚 : order=± 1, ± 2,± 3,..
 If the distance of single slit to the screen is D, and D>>a
then:
𝑚𝑦
sin 𝜃 𝑚 = tan 𝜃𝑚 =
 𝐷from central
Therefore the distance of nth minimum
maximum is:

𝑎
𝑦𝑚
 When 𝐷
( )
=𝑚 𝜆 𝑦 𝑚=
𝑚𝜆𝐷
𝑎
𝑚=± 1 1st minimum fringe (1st order minimum)

𝑚=± 2 2nd minimum fringe (2nd order minimum)

𝑚=± 3 3rd minimum fringe (3rd order minimum)
149
 Chapter 7 Physic


and m maximum (bright) fringes

th s
Equation for separation between central maximum (bright)

R mth maximum

r ip
ym
st
1 d strip
s t

2 rd strip
a A θ1
n

3 3
a C aE θ1 Central
a 3 sin 1 Q maximum
a D 3
3 B a sin  1

screen
Figure 7.51 150
 Chapter 7 Physic
A,C,D and B are new sources of secondary s
 A single slit is split into three equal parts, AC,CD and DB.
wavelets.
(Huygen’s principle)
 When the wavelets from A,C,D and B superpose,
interference will occur at R.
 As AB is very small, thus
 AE is perpendicular to CP and AP = EP,

 the outgoing rays are considered parallel,

 and therefore the path difference at P between ray AP

and CP is : a
 L  CE  sin  1
3
 Consider three narrow strips as shown in Figure 7.51, the
first two strips (pair) superposed destructively at which the
path difference is ½ and leave the third strip. The 3rd strip
produces the maximum (bright) fringe at R.
 If the 1st maximum (1st order maximum) is at R, hence :
a  3
 L  sin  1  a sin 1 
3 2 2 151
 Chapter 7 Physic
s in Figures
For the 2 maximum and 3 maximum, AB is split into 5
 nd rd

equal parts, 7 equal parts and so on as shown

7.52 and 7.53.

ip
s t s tr i p
st strip
a 1 nd trip a 1 n d s tr
p
s 2rd stri
5 2 d
r strip
7 3 th strip
p
3 h 4 th stri p
t strip i
5 th s tr p
a 4 th p a 6 th stri
stri
5 7

θ2 θ3

5 7
2 2
nd nd a  a 
sin  2  sin  3 
rd rd
2 maximum (2 3 maximum (3 order

order maximum) 5 2 minimum) 7 2

5 7
a sin  2  a sin  3 
2 2
Figure 7.52 Figure 7.53
152
 Chapter 7 Physic
 In general, for maxima (bright fringes)
s
a sin 𝜃𝑚 = 𝑚+ ( 1
2) where
𝜆𝑚=± 1,± 2, ± 3,..
 If the distance of single slit to the screen is D, and D>>a
then: 𝑦𝑚
sin 𝜃 𝑚 = tan 𝜃𝑚 =
 𝐷
Therefore the distance of nth maximum from central
maximum is:
(
1
)
( )(
𝑦𝑚
)
𝑚+ 𝜆𝐷
1 2
𝑎 = 𝑚+ 𝜆 𝑦 𝑚=
𝐷
 When 2 𝑎

𝑚=± 1 1st maximum fringe (1st order maximum)

𝑚=± 2 2nd maximum fringe (2nd order maximum)

𝑚=± 3 3rd maximum fringe (3rd order maximum)

153
 Chapter 7 Physic
 Equation for central maximum (bright) fringe
s
D

1st minimum
y1
a θ1
Q Central
θ1 y1 maximum
1st minimum
single slit Figure 7.54

A
C
D screen
E
B
Figure 7.55 154
 Chapter 7 Physic

s
Figure 7.55 shows five sources of Huygen’s wavelets and the
screen is to be so far from the slit (D>>a) thus the rays
from each source are nearly parallel.
 All the wavelets from each source travel the same distance
to the point Q (Figure 7.54) and arriving there in phase.
 Therefore, the constructive interference is occurred at the
central of the single slit diffraction pattern.
 The angular width of central maximum, w is given by

 w  2 1 and 𝜃1 :1 st minimum diffraction angle

1 
1 sin
a
 1  
 w  2 sin 
 a
155
 Chapter 7 Physic

s
The width of central maximum, w is given by
w  2 y and y : separation of 1 minimum and
st
1 1
central maximum
D
y1 
a
 D 
w  2 
 a 
 Note:
 To calculate the maximum number of orders observed,
take the diffraction angle, = 90.
 From both equations for minima and maxima, we obtain

sin 𝜃𝑚 ∝ 𝜆 and 𝑦 𝑚 ∝ 𝜆
 By using this two relations, the changes of single slit
diffraction pattern can be explained.
156
 Chapter 7 Physic
Example 7.17 :
sa slit and
A sodium light of wavelength 580 nm shines through
produces a diffraction pattern on a screen 0.60 m away. The width
of the central maximum fringe on the screen is 5.0 cm. Determine
a. the width of the slit,
b. the angular width of the central maximum fringe,
Solution :  580 10  9 m; D  0 . 60 m, w  5 . 0 10  2 m

1st minimum
Central
a w maximum
1st minimum
D
w  2 y1 and
a. Since y1 
 D 
w  2 
a
2
5 .0 10  2

580 10 0 .60 
9

 a  a 5
a 1 . 39 10 m
157
 Chapter 7 Physic
9 2

b. The angular width of the central maximum fringes

Solution :  580 10 m; D  0 . 60 m, w  5 . 0 10 m
is given by
1 
 w  2 1 and 1 sin
a
 1  
 w  2 sin 
 a
9
1  580  10 
 w 2 sin  
5 
 1.39 10 
 w  4 . 78 

158
 Chapter 7 Physic
Example 7.18 :
State the similarities and differences of double-slit s
interference
and single slit diffraction patterns.
Solution :
The similarities are
Double-slit interference pattern Single slit diffraction pattern
Both patterns consist of alternating dark and bright
fringes.

The central for both patterns is bright fringe.

The differences are

Double-slit interference Single slit diffraction pattern
The width ofpattern
each fringe is The central fringe is wider
the same. than the other fringes.
The intensity of bright The intensity of bright
fringes reduce slowly as a fringes reduce rapidly as a
distance increase from the distance increase from the
central bright. central bright. 159
 Chapter 7 Physic
Exercise 7.6 :
1. Monochromatic light of wavelength 689 nm fallsson a slit. If the
angle between first bright fringes on either side of the central
maximum is 38, calculate the slit width.
(Physics for scientist & engineers ,3rd edition, Giancoli, Q4, p.913)
ANS. : 3.2 m
2. Light of wavelength 633 nm from a distant source is incident on
a single slit 0.750 mm wide, and the resulting diffraction pattern
is observed on a screen 3.50 m away. Determine the distance
between the two dark fringes on either side of the central bright
fringe.
(University physics,11th edition, Young&Freedman, Q36.4, p.1396)
ANS. : 5.91 mm
3. A screen is placed 1.00 m behind a single slit. The central
maximum in the resulting diffraction pattern on the screen is
1.60 cm wide. What is the distance between the two second
order minima?
(Physics,3rd edition, J.S.Walker, Q45, p.967)
ANS. : 3.20 cm 160
 Chapter 7 Physic
Learning Outcome: s
7.9 Diffraction grating (1 hour)
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
 Explain with the aid of a diagram the formation of
diffraction.
 Apply
1
d sin  n n d
where
N

161
 Chapter 7 Physic
7.9 Diffraction grating
s
 is defined as a large number of equally spaced parallel slits.
 Diffraction grating can be made by ruling very fine parallel
lines on glass or metal by a very precise machine.
 The untouched spaces between the lines serve as the slits as
shown in Figure 7.55.
d 
Light passes through the slit because it is transparent.


The spaces between the lines are the slits, for example : if there are four

lines then we have 3 slits.

lines slit

Figure 7.55
162
 Chapter 7 Physic


by:
1
s
If there N lines per unit length, then slit separation, d is given

d
N
e.g. if a diffraction grating has 5000 lines per cm, then
1 1
d  d  2 10  4 cm
N 5000 cm  1
 The light that passes through the slits are coherent .
 The Interference pattern is narrower and sharper than double-
slits.
 There are two type of diffraction grating which are
 transmission grating (usual diffraction grating)
 reflection grating e.g. CD and DVD
 Diffraction grating is used in spectrometer to determine the
wavelength of light and to study spectra.

163
 Chapter 7 Physic
7.9.1
s
Explanation of diffraction by using Huygen’s
principle for diffraction grating
 Figure 7.56 shows an incident lights fall on the transmission
diffraction grating. C first order wavefront
A
source of secondary wavelets

E
second order wavefront

incident lights
third order wavefront

D
F
grating

zeroth order wavefront

Figure 7.56 B 164

 Chapter 7 Physic


the tangent of the wavelets from the slits.

s
Using Huygens’ principle, each maximum is located by taking

 If the wavelets from each of the slits are drawn and a tangent AB
is drawn, a plane wavefront parallel to the diffraction grating is
obtained. This represents the zeroth-order maximum ( n = 0).
 If the wavelets are grouped such that the first wavelet from one
slit is combined with the second wavelet from the next slit, the
third wavelet from the third slit and so on, the tangent CD will
represent the first-order maximum (n =1).
 For the second-order maximum, the wavelets are grouped are
such that the second wavelet of one slit is combined with the
fourth wavelet of the next slit, the sixth wavelet from the third slit
and so on. (tangent EF)
 Similarly, the third-, fourth-,…. order maximum may be obtained.

165
 Chapter 7 Physic
7.9.2 Equation of diffraction grating

from five slits of the grating.
s
Figure 7.57 illustrates light travels to a distant viewing screen

first order maximum (m = 1)

incoming plane wavefront of light

central or zeroth order maximum (m =

0)

first order maximum (m = 1)

diffraction grating

Figure 7.57 d sin 

d θ

θ
Figure 7.58
166
 Chapter 7 Physic

swhere the light
The maximum (bright) fringes are sometimes called the principal
maxima or principal fringes since they are placed
intensity is a maximum.
 Since the screen is far so that the rays nearly parallel while the
light travels toward the screen as shown in Figure 7.58.
 In reaching the place on the screen while the 1st order maximum
is located, light from one slit travels a distance of one
wavelength farther than light from adjacent slit.
 Therefore the path difference for maximum fringe (constructive
interference) is given by

𝑑sin 𝜃𝑚=𝑚 𝜆
where 𝑚 : order=0
th
,± 1, ± 2, ±3,..
 When 𝜃𝑚 :𝑚 order of diffraction angle
𝑚=0 Central maximum fringe (0th order maximum)
𝑚=± 1 1st maximum fringe (1st order maximum)
𝑚=± 2 2nd maximum fringe (2nd order maximum) 167
 Chapter 7 Physic
and sharper than those from a double-slit as thes
 The maximum fringes produce by a grating are much narrower
intensity graph
in Figures 7.59a and 7.59b.

Figure 7.59a

n  2 1 0 1 2

Figure 7.59b

n  2 1 0 1 2
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 Chapter 7 Physic

s
Figures 7.60 shows the diffraction grating pattern.

n 2 second-order maximum

Parallel beam of monochromatic light

n 1
first-order maximum

θ2

θ1
n 0 zero-order

maximum

n   1 first-order maximum

grating
n   2 second-order maximum

Figure 7.60
169
 Chapter 7 Physic


be observed to either side of the central fringe on sthe screen

If the white light is falls on the grating, a rainbow colours would

which is white as shown in Figure 7.61. This because the white

light contains wavelengths between violet and red.
n  2 1 0 1 2

Rainbow Rainbow white Rainbow Rainbow

White light

Figure 7.61 170

 Physic
Chapter 7
 Note:

s
To calculate the maximum number of orders for bright
fringes observed, take the diffraction angle, = 90.
Therefore
𝑑sin 90°=𝑚max 𝜆
𝑑
𝑚max =
𝜆
where mmax : maximum number of orders that can be observed.

 From the equation for maxima, we obtain

1
sin 𝜃𝑚 ∝ 𝜆and sin 𝜃𝑚 ∝
𝑑
 By using this two relations, the changes of diffraction grating
pattern can be explained.

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 Chapter 7 Physic
Example 7.19 :
snormally on a
A monochromatic light of unknown wavelength falls
diffraction grating. The diffraction grating has 3000 lines per cm.
If the angular separation between the first order maxima is 35.
Calculate
a. the wavelength of the light,
b. the angular separation between the second-order and third-
order maxima.
Solution : 𝑁 =3000 c m −1 ; 2 𝜃 =3 5∘ ;𝑚=1
1

1st order max.

 1
35
1st order max.

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 Chapter 7 Physic
−1 ∘

a. The diffraction angle for 1 order maximum is s

Solution :𝑁 =3000 c m ; 2 𝜃 =3 5 ;𝑚=1 1
st

2 1  35

 1 17 .5
And the slit separation, d is given by
1 1
d d
N 3000 cm  1
4 6
d  3 . 33 10 cm OR 3 . 33 10 m
Therefore the wavelength of the light is
𝑑 sin 𝜃𝑚=𝑚 𝜆
3 .33 10 sin 
6
1
3 .33 10 sin 17 .5
6 

6
 1 . 00 10 m
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 Chapter 7 Physic
Solution :
b. s
𝑚=3 3
rd
order maximum

 23 𝑚=22nd order maximum

θ3

𝑚=0
θ2 th
0 order maximum

nd
𝑚=−2 2 order maximum

rd
𝑚=−3 3 order maximum

By using the equation of diffraction grating for maxima,

𝑑 sin 𝜃𝑚=𝑚 𝜆
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 Chapter 7 Physic
Solution :
b. For 2nd order maximum,𝑚=2 s
d sin  2  2 
3 .33 10 sin  2  2 1 .00 10 
6 6

 2  36 .9
For 3rd order maximum,𝑚=3
d sin  3  3 
3 .33 10  6 sin  3  3 1 .00 10  6 
 3  64 . 3
Therefore the angular separation,
  2 3  3   2
  2 3  64 . 3   36 . 9 

  2 3  27 . 4
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 Chapter 7 Physic
Example 7.20 :
s grating with
The second-order maximum produced by a diffraction
560 lines per centimeter is at an angle of 3.1.
a. What is the wavelength of the light that illuminates the grating?
b. Determine the number of maximum can be observed on a
screen.
c. State and giving reason, what you would expect to observe if a
grating with a larger number of lines per centimeter is used.
Solution : 𝑁 =56 ×1 0 3 m − 1 ; 𝜃 =3.1∘ ; 𝑚=2
2
a. By applying the equation of diffraction grating for 2 nd order
maximum, thus 1
d sin  2  2 and d
sin  2 2 N N
sin 3 . 1 
 2 56 10 
3

  4 . 83 10  7 m
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 Chapter 7 Physic
Solution :
s
b. By applying the equation of grating for maximum,
1
𝑑 sin 𝜃𝑚=𝑚 𝜆 d  and

sin 𝜃𝑚 =𝑚 𝑁 𝜆 N
∘
For the maximum no. of order for maximum fringe, 𝜃𝑚=9 0
𝑚max =36.9736
Therefore the number of maximum can be observed is
(36  2)+1 = 73 fringes
c. The fringes become farther to each another.
Reason : since 1 1
sin   and d sin   N
d N
a larger number of lines per cm results in a larger
diffraction angle thus the distance between two
consecutive maximum fringes will increase.
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 Chapter 7 Physic
Exercise 7.7 :
s on a
1. The first-order maximum line of 589 nm light falling
diffraction grating is observed at an angle of 15.5. Determine
a. the slit separation on the grating.
b. the angle of diffraction for third-order maximum line.
(Physics for scientist & engineers ,3rd edition, Giancoli, Q32, p.914)
ANS. : 2.20 m; 53.4
2. A diffraction grating has 6000 lines per cm. Calculate the angular
separation between wavelengths 589.6 nm and 546.1 nm
respectively after transmission through it at normal incidence, in
the first-order spectrum (maximum line).
ANS. : 1.60
3. When blue light of wavelength 465 nm illuminates a diffraction
grating, it produces a 1st order maximum but no 2nd order
maximum.
a. Explain the absence of 2nd order maximum.
b. What is the maximum spacing between lines on this grating?
(Physics,3rd edition, J.S.Walker, Q65, p.968)
ANS. : 930 nm 178
 Chapter 7 Physic
s

Next Chapter…

CHAPTER 8.0 :

Wave Properties of Particle

179