Introduction to Ancient Indian Technology

Professor D. P. Mishra
Department of Aerospace Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur
Module 6
Lecture No 26
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Let us start this lecture with a thought process from Chhandogya Upanishad “It is the water
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which pervades everything,2 big or small, the earth, the atmosphere, the heaven, the
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mountains, gods, men, animals, birds, grass, plants, dogs, worms, insects, ants. All these are
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water indeed.” Today we will be basically discussing about the water and how to harvest it.
We will be discussing briefly about the irrigation systems, which were being practiced in
ancient time.

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(Refer Slide Time: 1:04)

Let look at this beautiful blue planet that is our beloved Mother Earth. Why does she look
so beautiful? It is so due present of water covering 70 % of land mass of our beloved Earth.
Note that the around 70 % of human body also contains water. Is it not interesting?

As per the Chhandogya Upanishad, the water is present in all creatures living in this
beautiful earth. What a great observation by our sages as depicted in the the Chhandogya
Upanishad. Each cell also contains around 70 % of water. As mentioned earlier, the entire
Earth contains 70% of water. That means we have plenty of water in our planet. The question
arises what is the amount of the portable water that we can use for sustaining our life? If you
look at the total global water, then the ocean contains 96.5% which are saline in nature and
hence we cannot use it. Besides this, another 1% of total water is saline in nature which can

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be used directly by us. That means the total water which is is considered to be fresh water is
around 2.5%. Out of these 2.5% fresh water, the 68.6% of this fresh water cannot be useed
as they are present in the glacier and ice caps. Besides this, 30.1% of fresh water is present
in the ground below earth surface. That means we will have to take it out from the ground
expending certain form of energy with help of pumps. Out of that 1.3% fresh water, the
73.1% of water is basically in the form of ice and snow. Note that 20.1% of water out of
2.5 % fresh water are present in lakes which is very difficult to use as they are not accessible
and portatble. The soil also contains certain amount of water as moisture which happens to be
around 3.5%. Recall that we had discussed about the agriculture for which we are supposed
to devise methods how to retain the moisture in the soil. That was a great challenge for the
agriculturist and today it is difficult to have because of global warming, wrong practices of
the agriculture and lack of the greenery coverage. The swamps or the marshes accounts for
around 2.5% of water while rivers carries around 0.46% of total fresh water, Besides this,
atmosphere also contains certain amount water as moisture which is around 0.22% of water.
If you look at the actual amount of fresh water which is available to us for to use is
abysmally miniscule. Hence we cannot afford to misuse it, abuse it and then spoiling it
madly in the name of development swayed by propaganda machinery of market

(Refer Slide Time: 4:32)

If you look at average daily water uses for person being plotted in the above figure. On left
hand side average consumption of water in liters per person and on the bttom name of
various countries are shown. Note that developed countries like U.S.A, Australia are using
more amount of water per person. This water consumption is decreasing with extent of

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development. . In developed countries per person usage water is higher and India being a
developing country uses is around 130 liters per person. That means if you want to be more
developed, you will be using more amount of water. That is the one yardstick like the way we
also judge whether you are developed or not developed by using energy per capita.

We being driven by whims of ill-sighted and uneducated leaders are aspiring to be a

developed country while following the model of western countries. Hence to attain to
imaginary development which is based on wrong philosophy of market driven mad
materialism, we need to enhance water consumption per capita that can match the standard of
America. From where we will get water for 133 crores people to attain the pinnacle of
lopsides development as envisaged by so called imprudent leaders. In order to develop
materialistically, we are establishing more industries to produce more products that pollutes
air, water and soil. Life becomes more pathetic day by day with unsolvable social, political,
ethical, environmental and other problems. However if you look at our ancient way of living
a purposeful, productive and peaceful life, the modern consumerist and materialistic society
is in deep trouble. The modern people consume more amount water and other natural
resources as compared to that ancient people who were consuming less amount of water for
life. Of course if you look at other developing country, fortunately we are having very less
amount of water usage per person. We should keep it low and attempt to reduce water
consumption. As discussed earlier, unfortunately due to this industrialization, urbanization
and other modern materialistic developments, our water consumption per person, is
increasing at an alarming rate which can pose greater threat to remain as a nation.

(Refer Slide Time: 6:50)

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Let us look at the UN report on water which is essential for life. Around 700 million people
in 43 countries suffer today due to water scarcity as to UN report data. By 2025 CE, which
is around after 8 years from today, 1.8 billion people will be living in countries or regions
with absolute water scarcity, and two thirds of the world’s population could be living under
water stressed conditions by 2025 CE. By 2030 CE what will happen with the existing
climate change scenario? Due to global warming, the temperature of the world has gone
up. Almost half of the world’s population will be living in areas of high water stress by 2030
Out of these, 75-250 million people in Africa will be facing sever water scarcity problem. In
addition to this, water scarcity in some arid or semi-arid places will displace between 24
million to 700 million people as per this prediction because water will not be available in
these regions. As a result, they will have to move to some other place where water might be
available; otherwise they cannot survive without water. Note that largest number of water
stressed countries are present in the region of sub Saharan Africa. Of course, Asia is the
next water stress continent after Africa. The problem of water sacristy is quite vulnerable
because its population is increasing at an alarming rate. In India, we are also spoiling the
quality of water by dumping wastes of the sewage, industrial effluents into our rivers. The
most pristine water in sacred and blessed river Ganga has been spoiled to large extent that
can be made portable in spite of 40 years of efforts of Indian Government by spending
enormous amount of tax payers money. Unfortunately we are not taking care of all Indian
reivers including Ganga what are supposed to preserve it as our heritage. In the name of
development, we have destroyed them to point of no return. Besides this, the underground
water is also contaminated to larger extent rather particularly in urban area with industrial
effluents, blatant uses of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, insecticides, etc. The underground
water level is decreasing at a faster rate due to blatant uses of underground water. Now where
we will go? Without water, life is not possible because water is the elixir of life. Forget
about any development that our leaders are talking about which is not at all sustainable in
long run. After learning about global scenario, let us look at water crisis in India.

(Refer Slide Time: 9:31)

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I will be giving you a very a brief view of water crises in India. The states which are hit by
the water scarcity are Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Andhra
Pradesh, Tamil Nadu of course the Gujarat, Maharashtra. In India, there are very few states
were are not affected by water scarcity. Look at this picture as shown above how people are
struggling to take water swarming around a water tank in the area of New Delhi
Municipality Corporation which is the capital of India. Similarly in Rajasthan, the women
are walking around 2-3 kilometers to fetch water. There is another picture shown depicting
plight of people for getting water in Natwarghad in Gujarat. Note that people are swarming
around a large well to get some water. These are few real pictures and situations in India
that describes water scarcity in India. A larger portion of modern India is facing water scarity
problem which is increasing at alarming rate.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:37)

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Let us now consider water supply duration in 20 major cities as shown in Figure. Of course
people of Chandigarh are fortunate enough to get water supply for around 12 hours per day.
Unfortunately the people of Rajlok get water supply for least amount of hour per day which
may be half an hour per day. Rest of other cities like Mumbai, Jabalpur, Bangalore are
getting water supply for around four hours per day. None of municipal corporation in 20
cities can provide people around 24 hours water supply. Of course in IIT, Kanpur we get 24
hours of water supply which is a luxury for us. Hence the problem of water scarcity is quite
severe across India, and we are having 130 crore people. As the population is increasing
along with rapid industrialization, we will be facing water scarcity problem which cannot be
surmountable. Hence, let us look at what are the main causes of present water crisis in India.

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(Refer Slide Time: 11:32)

With rising of population and their activities and hasty industrialization for accelerated
development the demand for water is increasing at very rapid pace. Over extraction of easily
available surface and ground water resources armed with modern technologies for pumping
water in remote areas using diesel and generator set. Both ground and surface water are
overused for agriculture because now-a-days water is supplied to the farmers without any
charges. As a result, people misuse water resources without understanding its implication.
Besides this whatever surface water is available which is contaminated and non-portable in
several regions due to rapid industrialization and excess uses of chemical fertilizers,
pesticides and insecticides, etc in the agricultural field. Hence there is an increasing human
impact on the environment and contamination of available water sources due to blatant
misuses of modern technologies.

The waste generated in industries are dumped into the river without bothering about its
implications. Today nobody is bother about taking care of river and other water bodies
which is considered to be elixir of life according to our ancient scripture. The sustainable
natural and manmade artificial water bodies present even 50 years back have been destroyed
blatantly due to mad rush after accelerated materialistic development. Beside this, there is a
climate change; of course due to global warming, the water evaporation rate is increasing
and then also water becomes scanty. Of course too much of water is consumed by rich people
while needy people are not getting adequate water to sustain their life. There is an excessive
environmental degradation in catchment areas of rivers and lakes. If you look at catchment
areas of river which mainly the mountains and other hills, these pristine natural spots become

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are flooded with plastics bottles, polythene and other garbage which are not biodegradable.
With the name of tourist business, people are going to these remote natural spots and are
putting lot of non-biodegradable garbage materials which are very detrimental for air, water
and soil. As a result, pollution in the catchment area is increasing at alarming rate in
polluting river, rivulets and springs which were pristine and priceless very years back.

Besides this, catchment area are being encroached by the influential and rich people and
industrialist and others. In earlier days, people were considering these regions and other
natural water bodies as divine. In modern time, pollution of river water, surface and ground
water are quite rampant due to gross mismanagement of the land and water resources. Due
to madly uses of chemicals for agriculture and other industrial and social activities, the
quality of water has been deteoriated rapidly. Besides this, other natural and manmade
problems like droughts, floods are being faced due to mismanagement of limited water
resources. The Himalayan region and other mountainous regions is now more prone to land
sides because people have blasted for making houses and other buildings.

As a result of these blasts, the rocks of these mountains are being damaged and loose with
several hidden cracks unknown to people. Any disturbances due to natural calamities are
causing havoc and colossal loses of life and wealth due to flash flood and landslides. Besides
this, several big and small dams are being built on the rivers which cause manmade floods
due to mismanagement of water flow. Hence we need to arrest the spree of unsustainable
materialistic, western way of life in the name of development or the modernity. It must be
kept in mind that the model that may worm wonderfully in western country would not work
in this country because India is a populous country with diverse culture and tradition with
complicated social dynamics.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:16)

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Let us then look at our ancient Indian wisdom and see how they were managing the water at
that time. How we can have sustainable water harvesting system ? As to the Sam Veda, one
type of water goes up and another type of water comes down; the rain water flows into rivers
and merges with sea. The water gets evaporated and forms cloud. According to Yajurveda
water basically moves from clouds to the earth, from the sea it will be evaporated. Then it
will form clouds and causes rain wherever mountains and other greenery places will be
encountered as they will trigger the condensation of water. As a result the rain will be
forming and flows through channels and again it will go and store in the ocean. So this is the
water cycle. Of course there will be evaporation and infiltration of water into the soil and
gets stored on the ground itself. Hence, this is a beautiful hydrological cycle maintained by
mother Nature which is going on from time immemorial. We have almost destroyed this
beautiful natural hydrological cycle in the name of development armed with power of modern
science and technology. This not really the true development rather it is a sophisticated form
of destruction.

Now, if you imagine that we want to use the sea water which is saline and evaporate it,
condense it and use it. Will it not be very costly? It will be extremely costly, but nature is
doing for us at free of cost for years together. We are about to destroy this natural water
cycle. The market forces are providing portable water with help of reverse osmosis
technology and swindling common people. What we need to do? We need to provide a free
hand to our mother Nature to restore this ravaged hydrology cycle. All components of the
Mother Nature like sea, mountains/hills, lakes, rivers, rivulets, jungles, forests, etc are to be
freed from the clutches of greedy market driven human beings. In others words, we need to

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protect instead of exploit all the divine entities of our Mother Nature. These components are
already designed by the Mother Nature for all living beings nor for man alone. We must
respect and understand the requirements of all living and non-living beings on this beautiful
Mother Earth reestablishing an amicable relation with her.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:57)

In orders to appreciate the water cycle described in Veda in scatter manner, let us look at
modern water cycle as shown in Fig. The sea/ocean is very important it controls all activities
of water cycle. That is the reason why sea is considered as the abode of Lord Vishnu which
sustains life in this earth. It has been considered that the sea is the abode of evolution in our
scripture. Unfortunately we are all spoiling the marine life, particularly the coastal nearby
area even in the deep sea also being spoiled by us because of exploration of petroleum and
other natural resources. The sea water gets evaporated to form clouds and subsequently
cloud will move towards land areas and gets precipitated and condensed whenever they will
be encountering mountains and other greenery areas. The rain water from the
mountains/hills and other catchment areas flows into rivulets and rivers towards sea.
Certain portion of rain water will be infiltrated into soil and forms a source of ground water
which can be used in summer and other season. Is it not a beautiful system made by Mother
Nature.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:56)

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Let us look at Birds eye view of water harvesting systems in our country in a nutshell. It is a
very vast so I cannot really talk about it. As per historical evidence, around 3000 BCE or
even before people in Baluchistan and Kutch region of Gujarat had built dams of stone
rubble. Later on during Indus Saraswati Valley Civilization several reservoirs were built to
collect rainwater runoff. Each house had an individual well and so also public well as
discussed earlier. Around 321-291 BCE as per archeological evidences, several dams, lakes,
irrigation systems were built during the time of Chandragupta Maurya’s rule.

The Kautilya’s Arthasastra, has mentioned the irrigation system and water harvesting system
who had prescribed a provision for taxing the farmer whoever uses water from the existing
irrigation system. Note that water from then existing irrigation system was not free for
farmers unlike today we are giving free water to the farmers and other people. If you give
anything freely, then they will misuse them. In the first century BCE a sophisticated water
harvesting system was built at Sringaverapura near Allahabad which will be discussed later
on. This water harvesting system was controlling the flood waters of Ganges. That means
people were facing the problems of flood, whenever there will be a river, there will be flood.
However one can use it intelligently for garnering advantages and learn how to manage the
water need by developing through understanding of river system. Around 2nd Century AD
Grand Anicut also known as Kallanai anicut was built by then king, Karikala Chola, across
the river Cauvery to divert water for irrigation, which is still functional even today. There is
another epoch making water system which was developed around 11th Century AD by then
king Bhoja of Bhopal who had built large artificial lakes around 65000 acres in India fed by
streams and springs of larger catchment area. They have joined several rivulets and springs to

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store water in more natural manner for which they had develop through understanding the
dynamics of water bodies. The book Rajatarangini by Kalhana written around 12th Century
AD has described about another well maintained irrigation system in Kashmir which were
managed by the people at that time not by the king. This system was managed by people
themselves till few years back. Unfortunately when government started interfering in the
management of this irrigation system and trying to manage it, then all these ancient
management system got collapsed and today it is in doldrums.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:08)

Let us look at historical perspective of well and other water bodies. So, if you look at the
large number of wells within the housing complex at Mohenjo-Daro and Harappan clearly
indicates the importance of water for domestic purposes and ritual ritualistic purposes. And
the occurrence of word “Avata” which is basically “well” repeatedly used in Rigveda which
indicate that the Vedic people were knowing how to dig a well and use it . Of course during
Mauryan rule, as I told earlier, farmers use to pay taxes for using well and also the other
irrigation system fitted with the machine of course. There is nothing much about those
machines which are being used. I presume there might be some water wheels or something to
take out the water kind of things. And the Kautilya’s Arthasastra had mentioned about that.

And besides these Panini’s Asthadhayayi as already talked about two words of course there
might be more words also but what I have mentioned here is Karakandu and Sakandu. One is
permanent well dug on the side of the river. I do not know really why side, that is one
question coming to mind. And another in temporary on left side of the river that is subjected
to annual inundations, there will be annual inundations and inundation means flood will be

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coming. And it may happen that flood is moving towards the what you call side that is why
that well might be temporary whereas the left side might be stable one or may be having
embankment which is flood will not go.

People have also while studying this I learnt that people are having embankment on the river
one side, they allow river water to flood in other side that means they wer having certain
control over the rivers movement . If you are having good embankment one side and other
you allow then anywhere you are what will come that will be that will be going, so that is the
one reason what came to my mind. Of course in early Tamil anthologies, there are several
collection of poems like Manimekalai and Tirukkural, Purananuru, Pattinappalai, etc, of
course I am sorry I am not pronouncing this Tamil word properly I think my my Tamil
friends will tolerate me. And terms related to water well namely Kuoal, Kulam and Kinaru,
Vani, Keni there are several words are there which are used profusely in these literatures of
Tamil Nadu. that means they were concerned about well and how to make and other things.
Besides this, Dharma Shastra’s mention four types of man-made water receivers like that
means if you were having if you could dig well, let us say will get some punyas and like
Kupa, Vapi and Puskarini and Tadaga. Like earlier days there was a belief system on the
people, if you give your resources or donate your resources for having a Kupa that means you
will do a lot of what you call punya. Punya means what it will be? Like m good deeds , this is
considered as a good deeds. Similarly that is why that believe system was working, people
were coming forward to give their resources, money, even their own man power to use, so
that public will use it which was the feeling of people in ancient India.

With this I will stop over here and we will be also discussing about the other aspects of well
and water bodies ad also other things how they were doing and how the society was doing not
the government was doing that is the there is a difference. Today government is trying to do
but earlier days the public things means public will take care of themselves in a group manner
not in individual manner. So, therefore society was alive at that time but today society is
almost be with a begging bowl to the government ? So, with this I will stop over we will see
in the next lecture Thank you very much.

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