ER IK S O N ‘ S

TH E O RY O F
PSYCHO S O C I A L
D E V ELO P M E N T
ERIK ERIKSON WAS AN EGO PSYCHOLOGIST WHO DEVELOPED ONE OF THE
MOST POPULAR AND INFLUENTIAL THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT. WHILE HIS
THEORY WAS IMPACTED BY PSYCHOANALYST SIGMUND FREUD'S WORK,
ERIKSON'S THEORY CENTERED ON PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT RATHER
THAN PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT.
THE STAGES THAT MAKE UP HIS THEORY ARE AS FOLLOWS: 1

STAGE 1: TRUST VS. MISTRUST

STAGE 2: AUTONOMY VS. SHAME AND DOUBT

STAGE 3: INITIATIVE VS. GUILT

STAGE 4: INDUSTRY VS. INFERIORITY

STAGE 5: IDENTITY VS. CONFUSION

STAGE 6: INTIMACY VS. ISOLATION

STAGE 7: GENERATIVITY VS. STAGNATION

STAGE 8: INTEGRITY VS. DESPAIR

 STAGE 1: TRUST VS. MISTRUST
THE FIRST STAGE OF ERIKSON'S THEORY OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT OCCURS BETWEEN BIRTH AND
1 YEAR OF AGE AND IS THE MOST FUNDAMENTAL STAGE IN LIFE. BECAUSE AN INFANT IS UTTERLY
DEPENDENT, DEVELOPING TRUST IS BASED ON THE DEPENDABILITY AND QUALITY OF THE CHILD'S
CAREGIVERS.
AT THIS POINT IN DEVELOPMENT, THE CHILD IS UTTERLY DEPENDENT UPON ADULT CAREGIVERS FOR
EVERYTHING THEY NEED TO SURVIVE INCLUDING FOOD, LOVE, WARMTH, SAFETY, AND NURTURING. IF A
CAREGIVER FAILS TO PROVIDE ADEQUATE CARE AND LOVE, THE CHILD WILL COME TO FEEL THAT THEY
CANNOT TRUST OR DEPEND UPON THE ADULTS IN THEIR LIFE.

OUTCOMES
IF A CHILD SUCCESSFULLY DEVELOPS TRUST, THE CHILD WILL FEEL SAFE AND SECURE IN THE WORLD.
CAREGIVERS WHO ARE INCONSISTENT, EMOTIONALLY UNAVAILABLE, OR REJECTING CONTRIBUTE TO
FEELINGS OF MISTRUST IN THE CHILDREN UNDER THEIR CARE. FAILURE TO DEVELOP TRUST WILL RESULT
IN FEAR AND A BELIEF THAT THE WORLD IS INCONSISTENT AND UNPREDICTABLE
STAGE 2: AUTONOMY VS. SHAME AND
DOUBT
THE SECOND STAGE OF ERIKSON'S THEORY OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT TAKES PLACE DURING
EARLY CHILDHOOD AND IS FOCUSED ON CHILDREN DEVELOPING A GREATER SENSE OF PERSONAL
CONTROL.

THE ROLE OF INDEPENDENCE

AT THIS POINT IN DEVELOPMENT, CHILDREN ARE JUST STARTING TO GAIN A LITTLE INDEPENDENCE.
THEY ARE STARTING TO PERFORM BASIC ACTIONS ON THEIR OWN AND MAKING SIMPLE DECISIONS
ABOUT WHAT THEY PREFER. BY ALLOWING KIDS TO MAKE CHOICES AND GAIN CONTROL, PARENTS
AND CAREGIVERS CAN HELP CHILDREN DEVELOP A SENSE OF AUTONOMY.

OUTCOMES
CHILDREN WHO STRUGGLE AND WHO ARE SHAMED FOR THEIR ACCIDENTS MAY BE LEFT WITHOUT A
SENSE OF PERSONAL CONTROL. SUCCESS DURING THIS STAGE OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
LEADS TO FEELINGS OF AUTONOMY; FAILURE RESULTS IN FEELINGS OF SHAME AND DOUBT.
STAGE 3: INITIATIVE VS. GUILT
THE THIRD STAGE OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT TAKES PLACE DURING THE
PRESCHOOL YEARS. AT THIS POINT IN PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT, CHILDREN
BEGIN TO ASSERT THEIR POWER AND CONTROL OVER THE WORLD THROUGH
DIRECTING PLAY AND OTHER SOCIAL INTERACTIONS. CHILDREN WHO ARE
SUCCESSFUL AT THIS STAGE FEEL CAPABLE AND ABLE TO LEAD OTHERS. THOSE
WHO FAIL TO ACQUIRE THESE SKILLS ARE LEFT WITH A SENSE OF GUILT, SELF-
DOUBT, AND LACK OF INITIATIVE.

OUTCOMES
THE MAJOR THEME OF THE THIRD STAGE OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT IS THAT
CHILDREN NEED TO BEGIN ASSERTING CONTROL AND POWER OVER THE
ENVIRONMENT. SUCCESS IN THIS STAGE LEADS TO A SENSE OF PURPOSE. CHILDREN
WHO TRY TO EXERT TOO MUCH POWER EXPERIENCE DISAPPROVAL, RESULTING IN A
SENSE OF GUILT.
STAGE 4: INDUSTRY VS. INFERIORITY
THE FOURTH PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGE TAKES PLACE DURING THE EARLY SCHOOL YEARS
FROM APPROXIMATELY AGES 5 TO 11. THROUGH SOCIAL INTERACTIONS, CHILDREN
BEGIN TO DEVELOP A SENSE OF PRIDE IN THEIR ACCOMPLISHMENTS AND ABILITIES.
CHILDREN NEED TO COPE WITH NEW SOCIAL AND ACADEMIC DEMANDS. SUCCESS
LEADS TO A SENSE OF COMPETENCE, WHILE FAILURE RESULTS IN FEELINGS OF
INFERIORITY.

OUTCOMES
CHILDREN WHO ARE ENCOURAGED AND COMMENDED BY PARENTS AND TEACHERS
DEVELOP A FEELING OF COMPETENCE AND BELIEF IN THEIR SKILLS. THOSE WHO
RECEIVE LITTLE OR NO ENCOURAGEMENT FROM PARENTS, TEACHERS, OR PEERS
WILL DOUBT THEIR ABILITIES TO BE SUCCESSFUL.
STAGE 5: IDENTITY VS. CONFUSION
THE FIFTH PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGE TAKES PLACE DURING THE OFTEN TURBULENT TEENAGE
YEARS. THIS STAGE PLAYS AN ESSENTIAL ROLE IN DEVELOPING A SENSE OF PERSONAL
IDENTITY WHICH WILL CONTINUE TO INFLUENCE BEHAVIOR AND DEVELOPMENT FOR THE REST
OF A PERSON’S LIFE. TEENS NEED TO DEVELOP A SENSE OF SELF AND PERSONAL IDENTITY.
SUCCESS LEADS TO AN ABILITY TO STAY TRUE TO YOURSELF, WHILE FAILURE LEADS TO ROLE
CONFUSION AND A WEAK SENSE OF SELF.

DURING ADOLESCENCE, CHILDREN EXPLORE THEIR INDEPENDENCE AND DEVELOP A SENSE OF

SELF. THOSE WHO RECEIVE PROPER ENCOURAGEMENT AND REINFORCEMENT THROUGH
PERSONAL EXPLORATION WILL EMERGE FROM THIS STAGE WITH A STRONG SENSE OF SELF AND
FEELINGS OF INDEPENDENCE AND CONTROL. THOSE WHO REMAIN UNSURE OF THEIR BELIEFS
AND DESIRES WILL FEEL INSECURE AND CONFUSED ABOUT THEMSELVES AND THE FUTURE.
STAGE 6: INTIMACY VS. ISOLATION
YOUNG ADULTS NEED TO FORM INTIMATE, LOVING RELATIONSHIPS
WITH OTHER PEOPLE. SUCCESS LEADS TO STRONG
RELATIONSHIPS, WHILE FAILURE RESULTS IN LONELINESS AND
ISOLATION. THIS STAGE COVERS THE PERIOD OF EARLY
ADULTHOOD WHEN PEOPLE ARE EXPLORING PERSONAL
RELATIONSHIPS.
ERIKSON BELIEVED IT WAS VITAL THAT PEOPLE DEVELOP CLOSE,
COMMITTED RELATIONSHIPS WITH OTHER PEOPLE. THOSE WHO
ARE SUCCESSFUL AT THIS STEP WILL FORM RELATIONSHIPS THAT
ARE ENDURING AND SECURE.
STAGE 7: GENERATIVITY VS. STAGNATION
ADULTS NEED TO CREATE OR NURTURE THINGS THAT WILL OUTLAST
THEM, OFTEN BY HAVING CHILDREN OR CREATING A POSITIVE CHANGE
THAT BENEFITS OTHER PEOPLE. SUCCESS LEADS TO FEELINGS OF
USEFULNESS AND ACCOMPLISHMENT, WHILE FAILURE RESULTS IN
SHALLOW INVOLVEMENT IN THE WORLD.
DURING ADULTHOOD, WE CONTINUE TO BUILD OUR LIVES, FOCUSING ON
OUR CAREER AND FAMILY. THOSE WHO ARE SUCCESSFUL DURING THIS
PHASE WILL FEEL THAT THEY ARE CONTRIBUTING TO THE WORLD BY
BEING ACTIVE IN THEIR HOME AND COMMUNITY. THOSE WHO FAIL TO
ATTAIN THIS SKILL WILL FEEL UNPRODUCTIVE AND UNINVOLVED IN THE
WORLD.
STAGE 8: INTEGRITY VS. DESPAIR
THE FINAL PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGE OCCURS DURING OLD AGE AND IS FOCUSED ON REFLECTING BACK ON LIFE.
AT THIS POINT IN DEVELOPMENT, PEOPLE LOOK BACK ON THE EVENTS OF THEIR LIVES AND DETERMINE IF THEY
ARE HAPPY WITH THE LIFE THAT THEY LIVED OR IF THEY REGRET THE THINGS THEY DID OR DIDN'T DO.
ERIKSON'S THEORY DIFFERED FROM MANY OTHERS BECAUSE IT ADDRESSED DEVELOPMENT THROUGHOUT THE
ENTIRE LIFESPAN, INCLUDING OLD AGE. OLDER ADULTS NEED TO LOOK BACK ON LIFE AND FEEL A SENSE OF
FULFILLMENT. SUCCESS AT THIS STAGE LEADS TO FEELINGS OF WISDOM, WHILE FAILURE RESULTS IN REGRET,
BITTERNESS, AND DESPAIR.
AT THIS STAGE, PEOPLE REFLECT BACK ON THE EVENTS OF THEIR LIVES AND TAKE STOCK. THOSE WHO LOOK
BACK ON A LIFE THEY FEEL WAS WELL-LIVED WILL FEEL SATISFIED AND READY TO FACE THE END OF THEIR
LIVES WITH A SENSE OF PEACE. THOSE WHO LOOK BACK AND ONLY FEEL REGRET WILL INSTEAD FEEL FEARFUL
THAT THEIR LIVES WILL END WITHOUT ACCOMPLISHING THE THINGS THEY FEEL THEY SHOULD HAVE.

OUTCOMES
THOSE WHO ARE UNSUCCESSFUL DURING THIS STAGE WILL FEEL THAT THEIR LIFE HAS BEEN WASTED AND MAY
EXPERIENCE MANY REGRETS. THE PERSON WILL BE LEFT WITH FEELINGS OF BITTERNESS AND DESPAIR.
REVIEW ERIKSON’S STAGES
STAGE 1 : TRUST VS MISTRUST ( 0-18 MONTHS ), HOPE
STAGE 2 : AUTONOMY VS. DOUBT ( 2-4 YEARS ), WILL
STAGE 3 : INITIATIVE VS. GUILT ( 5-8 YEARS ), PURPOSE
STAGE 4 : INDUSTRY VS. INFERIORITY ( 9-12 YEARS ), COMPETENCE
STAGE 5 : IDENTITY VS. ROLE CONFUSION ( 13-19 YEARS ), FIDELITY
STAGE 6 : INTIMACY VS ISOLATION ( 20-39 YEARS ), LOVE
STAGE 7 : GENERATIVITY VS. STAGNATION ( 40-59 YEARS ), CARE
STAGE 8 : EGO INTEGRITY VS. DESPAIR ( 60 AND UP ), WISDOM
BA N D U RA ’ S
SOCIAL
CO G N IT IV E
THEORY
THE SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY
SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY (SCT) STARTED AS THE SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY (SLT) IN THE
1960S BY ALBERT BANDURA. IT DEVELOPED INTO THE SCT IN 1986 AND POSITS THAT
LEARNING OCCURS IN A SOCIAL CONTEXT WITH A DYNAMIC AND RECIPROCAL
INTERACTION OF THE PERSON, ENVIRONMENT, AND BEHAVIOR. THE UNIQUE FEATURE OF
SCT IS THE EMPHASIS ON SOCIAL INFLUENCE AND ITS EMPHASIS ON EXTERNAL AND
INTERNAL SOCIAL REINFORCEMENT. SCT CONSIDERS THE UNIQUE WAY IN WHICH
INDIVIDUALS ACQUIRE AND MAINTAIN BEHAVIOR, WHILE ALSO CONSIDERING THE SOCIAL
ENVIRONMENT IN WHICH INDIVIDUALS PERFORM THE BEHAVIOR. THE THEORY TAKES INTO
ACCOUNT A PERSON'S PAST EXPERIENCES, WHICH FACTOR INTO WHETHER BEHAVIORAL
ACTION WILL OCCUR. THESE PAST EXPERIENCES INFLUENCES REINFORCEMENTS,
EXPECTATIONS, AND EXPECTANCIES, ALL OF WHICH SHAPE WHETHER A PERSON WILL
ENGAGE IN A SPECIFIC BEHAVIOR AND THE REASONS WHY A PERSON ENGAGES IN THAT
BEHAVIOR.
MANY THEORIES OF BEHAVIOR USED IN HEALTH PROMOTION DO
NOT CONSIDER MAINTENANCE OF BEHAVIOR, BUT RATHER FOCUS
ON INITIATING BEHAVIOR. THIS IS UNFORTUNATE AS
MAINTENANCE OF BEHAVIOR, AND NOT JUST INITIATION OF
BEHAVIOR, IS THE TRUE GOAL IN PUBLIC HEALTH. THE GOAL OF
SCT IS TO EXPLAIN HOW PEOPLE REGULATE THEIR BEHAVIOR
THROUGH CONTROL AND REINFORCEMENT TO ACHIEVE GOAL-
DIRECTED BEHAVIOR THAT CAN BE MAINTAINED OVER TIME. THE
FIRST FIVE CONSTRUCTS WERE DEVELOPED AS PART OF THE SLT;
THE CONSTRUCT OF SELF-EFFICACY WAS ADDED WHEN THE
THEORY EVOLVED INTO SCT.
1. RECIPROCAL DETERMINISM
THIS IS THE CENTRAL CONCEPT OF SCT. THIS REFERS TO
THE DYNAMIC AND RECIPROCAL INTERACTION OF
PERSON (INDIVIDUAL WITH A SET OF LEARNED
EXPERIENCES), ENVIRONMENT (EXTERNAL SOCIAL
CONTEXT), AND BEHAVIOR (RESPONSES TO STIMULI TO
ACHIEVE GOALS).
 2. BEHAVIORAL CAPABILITY
• THIS REFERS TO A PERSON'S ACTUAL ABILITY TO
PERFORM A BEHAVIOR THROUGH ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
AND SKILLS. IN ORDER TO SUCCESSFULLY PERFORM A
BEHAVIOR, A PERSON MUST KNOW WHAT TO DO AND
HOW TO DO IT. PEOPLE LEARN FROM THE CONSEQUENCES
OF THEIR BEHAVIOR, WHICH ALSO AFFECTS THE
ENVIRONMENT IN WHICH THEY LIVE.
3. OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
THIS REFERS TO A PERSON'S ACTUAL ABILITY TO
PERFORM A BEHAVIOR THROUGH ESSENTIAL
KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS. IN ORDER TO SUCCESSFULLY
PERFORM A BEHAVIOR, A PERSON MUST KNOW WHAT
TO DO AND HOW TO DO IT. PEOPLE LEARN FROM THE
CONSEQUENCES OF THEIR BEHAVIOR, WHICH ALSO
AFFECTS THE ENVIRONMENT IN WHICH THEY LIVE.
 4. REINFORCEMENTS
THIS REFERS TO THE INTERNAL OR EXTERNAL RESPONSES TO A
PERSON'S BEHAVIOR THAT AFFECT THE LIKELIHOOD OF
CONTINUING OR DISCONTINUING THE BEHAVIOR.
REINFORCEMENTS CAN BE SELF-INITIATED OR IN THE
ENVIRONMENT, AND REINFORCEMENTS CAN BE POSITIVE OR
NEGATIVE. THIS IS THE CONSTRUCT OF SCT THAT MOST CLOSELY
TIES TO THE RECIPROCAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BEHAVIOR
AND ENVIRONMENT.
 5. EXPECTATIONS
• THIS REFERS TO THE ANTICIPATED CONSEQUENCES OF A PERSON’S
BEHAVIOR. OUTCOME EXPECTATIONS CAN BE HEALTH-RELATED OR
NOT HEALTH-RELATED. PEOPLE ANTICIPATE THE CONSEQUENCES OF
THEIR ACTIONS BEFORE ENGAGING IN THE BEHAVIOR, AND THESE
ANTICIPATED CONSEQUENCES CAN INFLUENCE SUCCESSFUL
COMPLETION OF THE BEHAVIOR. EXPECTATIONS DERIVE LARGELY
FROM PREVIOUS EXPERIENCE. WHILE EXPECTANCIES ALSO DERIVE
FROM PREVIOUS EXPERIENCE, EXPECTANCIES FOCUS ON THE VALUE
THAT IS PLACED ON THE OUTCOME AND ARE SUBJECTIVE TO THE
INDIVIDUAL.
 6. SELF-EFFICACY
• THIS REFERS TO THE LEVEL OF A PERSON’S CONFIDENCE
IN HIS OR HER ABILITY TO SUCCESSFULLY PERFORM A
BEHAVIOR. SELF-EFFICACY IS UNIQUE TO SCT ALTHOUGH
OTHER THEORIES HAVE ADDED THIS CONSTRUCT AT
LATER DATES, SUCH AS THE THEORY OF PLANNED
BEHAVIOR. SELF-EFFICACY IS INFLUENCED BY A
PERSON’S SPECIFIC CAPABILITIES AND OTHER
INDIVIDUAL FACTORS, AS WELL AS BY ENVIRONMENTAL
FACTORS (BARRIERS AND FACILITATORS).
 LIMITATION OF SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY
THERE ARE SEVERAL LIMITATIONS OF SCT, WHICH SHOULD BE CONSIDERED WHEN USING THIS
THEORY IN PUBLIC HEALTH. LIMITATIONS OF THE MODEL INCLUDE THE FOLLOWINGTHE THEORY
ASSUMES THAT CHANGES IN THE ENVIRONMENT WILL AUTOMATICALLY LEAD TO CHANGES IN THE
PERSON, WHEN THIS MAY NOT ALWAYS BE TRUE.

THE THEORY IS LOOSELY ORGANIZED, BASED SOLELY ON THE DYNAMIC INTERPLAY BETWEEN
PERSON, BEHAVIOR, AND ENVIRONMENT. IT IS UNCLEAR THE EXTENT TO WHICH EACH OF THESE
FACTORS INTO ACTUAL BEHAVIOR AND IF ONE IS MORE INFLUENTIAL THAN ANOTHER.

THE THEORY HEAVILY FOCUSES ON PROCESSES OF LEARNING AND IN DOING SO DISREGARDS

BIOLOGICAL AND HORMONAL PREDISPOSITIONS THAT MAY INFLUENCE BEHAVIORS, REGARDLESS OF
PAST EXPERIENCE AND EXPECTATIONS.

THE THEORY DOES NOT FOCUS ON EMOTION OR MOTIVATION, OTHER THAN THROUGH REFERENCE TO
PAST EXPERIENCE. THERE IS MINIMAL ATTENTION ON THESE FACTORS.

THE THEORY CAN BE BROAD-REACHING, SO CAN BE DIFFICULT TO OPERATIONALIZE IN ENTIRETY

SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY CONSIDERS MANY LEVELS OF THE SOCIAL
ECOLOGICAL MODEL IN ADDRESSING BEHAVIOR CHANGE OF
INDIVIDUALS. SCT HAS BEEN WIDELY USED IN HEALTH PROMOTION
GIVEN THE EMPHASIS ON THE INDIVIDUAL AND THE ENVIRONMENT, THE
LATTER OF WHICH HAS BECOME A MAJOR POINT OF FOCUS IN RECENT
YEARS FOR HEALTH PROMOTION ACTIVITIES. AS WITH OTHER
THEORIES, APPLICABILITY OF ALL THE CONSTRUCTS OF SCT TO ONE
PUBLIC HEALTH PROBLEM MAY BE DIFFICULT ESPECIALLY IN
DEVELOPING FOCUSED PUBLIC HEALTH PROGRAMS.
REFERENCES:

• HTTPS://SPHWEB.BUMC.BU.EDU/OTLT/MPH-MODULES/SB/BEHAVIORALCHANGE
THEORIES/BEHAVIORALCHANGETHEORIES5.HTML#:~:TEXT=SOCIAL%20COGNIT
IVE%20THEORY%20(SCT)%20STARTED,PERSON%2C%20ENVIRONMENT%2C%20
AND%20BEHAVIOR
.

• HTTPS://WWW.VERYWELLMIND.COM/ERIK-ERIKSONS-STAGES-OF-PSYCHOSOCI
AL-DEVELOPMENT-2795740