ADDER

• AN ADDER IN A CIRCUIT IS A
DIGITAL LOGIC CIRCUIT THAT
ADDS TWO OR MORE BINARY
NUMBERS. THE MOST BASIC
ADDER CIRCUITS ARE USED
TO ADD BINARY DIGITS
(BITS), WHICH CAN BE
EXTENDED TO ADD MULTI-
BIT BINARY NUMBERS. THERE
ARE DIFFERENT TYPES OF
ADDERS DEPENDING ON
THEIR COMPLEXITY AND
FUNCTIONALITY.
TYPES OF ADDER
HALF ADDER (HA)
• A half adder is the simplest type of adder that
adds two single-bit binary numbers.
• Inputs: Two bits (A and B)
• Outputs:
• Sum (S): The result of adding the two bits.
• Carry (C): Any carry-over resulting from the
addition.
Truth table for a half adder
A B SUM(S) CARRY(C)
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1

The sum is generated using an XOR (exclusive

OR) gate, and the carry is generated using an
AND gate.
2. FULL ADDER (FA)
• A full adder adds three binary digits: two bits and
a carry-in from a previous addition.
• Inputs:
• Two bits (A and B) to be added.
• A carry-in (Cin) from the previous addition.
• Outputs:
• Sum (S): The result of adding the three bits.
• Carry-out (Cout): The carry that may be passed
to the next higher bit position
Truth table for a full adder:
A B CIN SUM(S) COUNT
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1

The sum is generated using an XOR gate, and the carry-out is

generated with a combination of AND and OR gates.
Logic family
• Logic families are different types of technologies being
used to build different logic gates. Logic gates are
digital circuits that perform basic logic operations like
AND, OR, NOT, NAND, and NOR. In other words, it is a
group of compatible ICs with the same logic levels and
supply voltages fabricated for performing various
logical functions. Here, when we say that ICs have the
same logic level, we are referring to two types of logic
levels that exist -
• In positive logic, 0 is formed by a low voltage
level, and a high voltage level forms 1. It means
the ON state refers to high voltage as input or
output while OFF means low voltage as input or
output.
• In negative logic, 0 is formed by a high voltage
level, and 1 is formed by a low voltage level. Here,
the situation is reversed to that of positive logic.
ON means a low voltage input or output while
OFF means high voltage as input or output.
• Logical functions are the logical gate operations. The most
common logical functions are - AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, XOR.
• Logic families are fabricated using various semiconductor
technologies utilizing diodes and transistors as switching
components. Diodes are simple switching elements having two
states, ON as when in forward bias and OFF as when in reverse
bias.
• In the same way, transistors are elements having three terminals-
collector, base, and emitter and they utilize base voltage to
switch their states by allowing them to flow current from
collector to emitter.
• Various factors are responsible for choosing which logic families
can be used for the given specific scenarios which include
switching speed, fan-out capabilities, power consumption, etc.
Classification of Logic Families
Logic families can be broadly categorized as per
the following diagram
Unipolar Logic Families
• Unipolar means having a single type of charge
carrier. This logic family uses transistors that have
either electrons or holes(not both) as charge
carriers. The most commonly used technology is
Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor(MOS). A common
example is Complementary MOS (CMOS) logic.
NMOS (N-channel Metal Oxide Semiconductor)
• NMOS transistors conduct when a positive charge is applied to
the gate terminal. A nChannel Metal-oxide-
semiconductor(MOS) transistor is one in which n-type dopants
are used in the gate region(channels). A positive voltage on the
gate turns the device ON.NMOS is built on a p-type substrate
with an n-type source and drain diffused on it. In NMOS,
electrons are the majority carriers. When a high voltage is
applied to the gate, the conduction starts. A negative supply
stops the conduction and thus switches OFF the device. These
are generally considered faster to pMOS as the charge carriers
here are electrons which are twice as fast as holes.
PMOS (P-channel Metal Oxide Semiconductor Battery-Powered)
• PMOS transistors conduct when a negative charge is applied to the
gate terminal. A p-channel Metal-oxide-semiconductor(MOS)
transistor is one in which p-type dopants are used in the gate
region(channels). A negative voltage on the gate turns the device ON.

• p-channel MOSFETs consist of a p-type source and drain diffused on a

N-type substrate. Holes are the majority of charge carriers here. That
means the high voltage supplied to the gate turns the device OFF.
Similarly, a low voltage starts the conduction and in turn, switches ON
the device. They are more immune to noise fluctuations compared to
NMOS devices.
CMOS(Complementary MOS)
• In CMOS technology, both n-type and p-type
transistors are used to design logical functions.
The same signal which turns ON one transistor is
used to turn OFF the other transistor. These
characteristics of CMOS make it compatible for
designing logic devices using only simple
switching elements, without the need for a pull-
up resistor.
Characteristics of CMOS
Characteristics of CMOS are listed below :

• Low power consumption - CMOS circuit consumes very low power, making them
ideal for battery-powered devices.
• Low cost - The CMOS fabrication process is relatively simpler compared to other
semiconductor technologies.
• High reliability and noise immunity - They are considered to have a high noise
margin and thus are good for circuits that require high tolerance to noise.
• Limited Voltage Swing - They have a low voltage range of operation, making them
less suitable for high voltage operations.
• Process Variation - The CMOS fabrication process is highly dependent on process
conditions, leading to variations that can affect the performance and reliability of
the final product.
• Vulnerability to electrostatic discharge - CMOS is greatly affected by electrostatic
discharge leading to permanent device damage on exposure.
Bipolar Logic Families
• In bipolar devices, the conduction happens due to both
charge carriers - electrons and holes. Bipolar logic families
use semiconductor diodes and bipolar junction transistors as
the basic building blocks of logic circuits. The simplest bipolar
logic elements use diodes and resistors to perform logic
operations; this is called diode logic. Most TTL logic gates use
diode logic internally and boost their output drive capability
using transistor circuits. Some TTL gates use parallel
configurations of transistors to perform logic functions. ECL
gates use transistors as current switches to achieve very high
speed.
There are further classifications of the bipolar logic
family in two types
• Saturated
• In this logic, the bipolar junction transistors(BJTs)
used are operated in saturated regions. This means
that both the emitter-base and collector-base
junctions are forward-biased, allowing maximum
current flow through the transistor.
Characteristics of Saturated Logic Families

Characteristics of Saturated Logic Families are listed below :

• Can allow relatively higher current through transistors
• Very fast state switching
• Higher power consumption than non-saturated logic families.
• Better noise immunity
• Examples include Transistor-Transistor Logic (TTL), Diode Transistor
Logic (DTL), and Resistor Transistor Logic (RTL). TTL is the most
popular category in this classification.
Transistor-Transistor Logic (TTL)
• Transistor-transistor logic (TTL) is a digital logic family
employing bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) to uphold
logic states and facilitate switching operations.
Introduced in 1961 by James L. Buie of TRW, TTL
remains prevalent in various electronic devices and
systems. Renowned for its remarkable performance
and adaptability, TTL finds widespread application in
logic gates, memory circuits, and microprocessors.
Characteristics of TTL

Characteristics of TTL are listed below :

• Logic Voltage Levels: TTL logic inputs are classified as logical high when they fall
between 2V and 5V, and logical low when within the range of 0V to 0.8V.
• Propagation Delay: TTL stands out for having the minimal propagation delay
among digital integrated circuits (ICs).
• Power Dissipation: A standard TTL device consumes approximately 10mW of
power.
• Noise Margin: TTL boasts a noise margin of about 0.4V
• Fan Out: Typically, TTL exhibits a fan-out capability of 10.
• Supply Voltage: TTL necessitates a supply voltage ranging between 4.75 V and 5.25
V.
• Speed: TTL is renowned for its rapid switching speed.
• Compatibility: TTL devices are compatible with other TTL devices.
Diode Transistor Logic (DTL)
• In Diode Transistor Logic, diodes are used for AND
and OR operations while transistors are used for
logical inversion and amplification. DTL is used to
design and fabricate digital circuits that use diodes
in the input stage and BJTs at the output stage. DTL
is a type of circuit used in current digital electronics
for processing electrical signals.
Characteristics of DTL

Characteristics of DTL are listed below :

• Noise margin: DTL circuits have better noise performance than that of
RTL due to high noise margin
• Fan-out: DTL circuits typically have High fan-out.
• Logic low level: 0 or 0.2V
• Logic high level: 5V
• Average propagation delay: Average delay is of 9ns which lies
between that of RTL and TTL
• Power dissipation: A few milliwatts to about 50 mW
Resistor Transistor Logic (RTL)
• Being the pioneering logic family adopted in integrated circuits,
RTL (Resistor-Transistor Logic) circuits consist of resistors and
transistors, with resistors positioned at the inputs and transistors
at the output. NPN transistors serve as switches, while resistors
either regulate current or introduce voltage drops. Initially
developed with discrete components, it wasn't until 1961 that RTL
circuits marked the advent of the first digital logic family
fabricated as a monolithic integrated circuit. These integrated
circuits found application in significant systems like the Apollo
Guidance Computer, which debuted in 1966. The fundamental RTL
device is the NAND gate.
Characteristics of RTL

Characteristics of RTL are listed below :

• High packing density: It means more numbers of RTL circuits can be

implemented over chipset
• Logic low level: 0.7V
• Logic high level: 3.5V
• Power Dissipation: Power dissipation is high compared to DTL and TTL
• Noise margin: RTL has poor noise margin with noise immunity being
around 30% of supply voltage.
• Propagation delay: Delay is high resulting in low speed.
Non-saturated
• In non-saturated bipolar logic, the bipolar
junction transistors (BJTs) are operated in the
active or linear region and not in the saturation
region. In other words, the collector-base
junction is reverse-biased, limiting the current
flow through the transistor.
Characteristics of Non-Saturated Logic Families
Characteristics of non-saturated Logic Families are listed
below :

• Comparatively lower current flow than the saturated logic

family's transistors
• Slower switching speed
• Lower power consumption
• Examples include Emitter Coupled Logic(ECL) and Schottky
TTL.
Emitter Coupled Logic (ECL) family
• Emitter-coupled logic (ECL) is a bipolar transistor logic family
that is considered to be the fastest logic available. It was
invented in 1956 at IBM by Hannon S. Yourke. ECL is also
known as current-steering logic (CSL), current-mode logic
(CML), or current-switch emitter-follower (CSEF) logic. The key
to reducing propagation delay in a bipolar logic family is to
prevent a gate’s transistors from saturating, we learned how
Schottky diodes prevent saturation in TTL gates.
• ECL is used in high-performance applications, such as: Clock-
distribution circuits, High-frequency-based applications, Fiber-
optic transceiver interfaces, Ethernet, and ATM (Asynchronous
Transfer Mode) networks.
Characteristics of ECL logic family
Characteristics of ECL Logic Families are listed below :

• Power noise: ECL circuits generate relatively little power noise

• Propagation time: The propagation time for ECL can be less than a
nanosecond
• Small voltage swing: ECL achieves its high-speed operation by employing a
relatively small voltage swing and preventing the transistors from entering
the saturation region
• No external inverters: ECL devices operate without the need for any
external inverters to simultaneously create the true and complementary
output of the desired function at the outputs
• Small voltage swing: ECL has a small swing which generally varies with
difference of 0.8V
Schottky TTL
• Schottky TTL employs an internal architecture akin to standard TTL,
with the notable inclusion of Schottky transistors. These transistors
are essentially conventional bipolar transistors augmented with a
Schottky diode bridging the base-collector junction. A Schottky diode,
characterized by its semiconductor-metal composition, boasts a
notably low cut-in voltage of typically 300 millivolts, in contrast to the
600 mV threshold of other prevalent semiconductor diodes. This low
cut-in voltage restricts the base-collector voltage to approximately
400 mV, effectively preventing the transistor from entering saturation.
Consequently, this limitation mitigates the transition time required for
the transistor to shift from saturation to cutoff state.
Characteristics of Schottky TTL logic family

• Low power consumption: They basically operate in non-saturated

region so usually have less power consumed compared to normal TTL
family.
• Reduced switching time: Schottky diodes have a low forward voltage
drop, often between 0.3 and 0.5 volts, which enables quicker
switching time. In other words, Schottky TTL is faster.
• Reduced propagation delay time: By preventing saturation of
transistors, it reduces the propagation delay.
• Simple Circuit design: It has low complexity compared to ECL family.
Characteristics of a Logic Family
• Operating Speed: This refers to the time taken for the output voltage to change
in response to a change in the input voltage. It is desirable for this time to be
minimized.
• Fan-in: This denotes the number of inputs connected to a logic gate. For
instance, in an AND gate, the fan-in is 2, whereas in a NOT gate, it's 1.
• Fan-out: Fan-out indicates the total number of outputs that a gate can manage
without significant alteration in output voltage.
• Noise Immunity: Noise immunity gauges the capacity of a circuit to endure noise
or electrical interference without causing a notable deviation in the output.
• Power Dissipation: Power dissipation refers to the power required for operation.
When a circuit transitions from one state to another, power is dissipated.
Typically, there are two forms of dissipation: static power dissipation, which is
the power consumed when the circuit's state remains unchanged, and dynamic
power dissipation, which is the power utilized during state transitions.