INTRODUCTION TO

ETHNOBIOLOGY
Course outline
1. Introduction to Ethnobiology
2. Ethnobotany
3. Ethnozoology
4. Indigenous knowledge and people
INTRODUCTION TO ETHNOBIOLOGY
1.1 What is Ethnobiology?
1.2 Scope of Ethnobiology
1.3 Ethnobiological classification (Folk
Taxonomy)
Quiz I = 5%
 What is Ethnobiology
Ethnobiology is the scientific and humanistic study of the complex
set of relationships of the biota to present and past human societies.
Ethnobiology is a multidisciplinary field of study that draws on
approaches and methods from both the social and biological
sciences.
One of more recent definitions - the study of the reciprocal
relationships between human cultures and the natural world.
the human perception of the biological environment, which will ultimately influence man's
behavior, while human behavior in turn influences – or shapes – the biological environment.
Ethnobiology aims at investigating culturally based biological and
environmental knowledge, cultural perception and cognition of the
natural world, and associated behaviors and practices.
Introduction ctd
Ethnobiology is divided in to three sub disciplines:
ethnobotany, ethnozoology and ethnoecology.
Ethnobotany is the discipline concerned with the interactions
between people and plants.
Ethnozoology is concerned with the multifaceted
relationship between animals and humans throughout human
history;
Ethnoecology is the study of traditional environmental
knowledge and of anthropogenic effects on the environment.
Given the greater importance of plants than animals for most
human societies, ethnobotanical studies form the vast
majority of research within ethnobiology.
The broad definition of ethnobiology encompasses
 ethnotaxonomy (study of the classification principles of animals,
plants, soils, and ecosystems according to local peoples),
 ethnomedicine (study of the cultural concepts of health, disease
and illness, and of the nature of local healing systems),
 ethnoagronomy (study of subsistence economies and resource
management)
 Material culture (study of biological resources used in art and
technology).
Ethnobiology addresses three major domains of
inquiry:
Economic - how people use plants and animals
Cognitive -how people know and conceptualize plants
and animals, and
Ecological - how people interact with plants and
animals, especially in an evolutionary and co-
evolutionary framework.
Significance of Ethnobiological Study
Why we study ethnobiology
1. To document the traditional knowledge that
has been developed from the origin of human
race
Knowledge acquired in this direction through a series
of trials and errors over a long period of time and
consolidated by repeated practices
 passed on linearly from one generation to the next
without resort to any formal documentation
 Scientific study and documentation of
ethnobiological knowledge is crucial and urgent
before these culturally rich people and major
biological diversity disappear
 Significance of Ethnobiological Study
Study, documentation and preservation of knowledge,
innovations and practices of indigenous and local
communities embodying traditional lifestyles is important
in that relevant practices with conservation and
sustainable use of biological diversity.
This could be integrated with the current scientific
approaches for wider application with the approval and
involvement of the holders of such knowledge,
innovations and practices, and encourage the equitable
sharing of the benefits arising from the utilization of such
knowledge innovations and practices
Traditional ecological knowledge is time-tasted tool for
the conservation and management of biological diversity.
This is because it is acquired through long course of
intimate interaction with nature.
Significance of Ethnobiological Study
2. Intellectual or commercial property right (IPR) and
benefit sharing
About 40 percent of prescription drugs developed in
pharmaceutical companies, for example, are invented
based on traditional knowledge and extracted
originally from plants, animals other organisms
In the absence of proper documentation and
authorization of traditional knowledge on the use of
plants, animals and inorganic chemicals, it is likely
that it is subjected to illegal use or theft.
This also denies the right of custodians(keepers) of
the knowledge system to share benefit gained using
his indigenous knowledge. Such use of indigenous
knowledge without consent to indigenous people is
termed as bio-piracy.
 Significance of Ethnobiological Study

Neem tree (dubbed as ‘’corner drug store of rural India’’ ―

‘’the curer of all ailments’’)has been used in India for the past
2000 years as an insecticide, fungicide, as contraceptive, and
anti bacterial agent. Its twigs used as a tooth brush for times
immemorial.
However, U.S. patent was given on a pesticide derived from
the seeds of the ‘’Neem’’ tree in 1991 made by another party.
The patent was granted for an extraction process that
produces a stable form of pesticide that could be stored and
marketed globally. This is one example of bio-piracy.
This implies that questions of ethics must be considered not
only in light of western industrialized nations' common
understanding of ethics and law, but also in light of the
ethical and legal standards of the societies from which the
ethnobiologist draws information.
Consequently, the patent can be challenged on the grounds of
prior art and obviousness.
Significance ctd
3. Indigenous knowledge for new biological and
ecological insights. New scientific knowledge
can be derived from perceptive investigation of
traditional ecological knowledge
4. Much of indigenous knowledge is relevant for
contemporary natural resource management
5. Indigenous knowledge for development
planning.
 Scope of Ethnobiology
Ethnobiology addresses
 knowledge systems
medicine, health, and nutrition
ecology, evolution, and systematics;
landscapes, and global trends,
Biocomplexity -feedback mechanisms between
biota and human communities.
Cosmological, Moral and Spiritual Significance
Knowledge systems
Both processes and products of knowledge systems are often
explored in Ethnobiology.
 Ethnobiology studies the processes by which knowledge is created,
acquired, transformed, and transmitted.
 Variables in knowledge are investigated including age, gender, and
culture.
 Creative interactions between science and traditional knowledge are
a major focus of Ethnobiology.
Medicine, health, and nutrition
 Medicine, health, and nutrition, beyond the applied fields,
demonstrate complex interactions among people, plants,
food, microbes, and environment.
 In particular, medicinal plants are an active area of
research in Ethnobiology.
 This is a rich realm for Ethnobiology, a field that is centrally
positioned to address these interactive factors.
 Traditional knowledge and health, nutrition, medicinal
plants, the influence of human-environment interactions on
health, and zoopharmacognosy (medicinal plant use by
animals other than humans)
Ecology, evolution, and systematic

 Ecology, evolution, and systematics are traditional

concerns in biology.
 However, they seldom account for human dimensions
except for negative impacts on nature or artificial
selection (disturbance and extinction of species).
 Ethnobiology, on the other hand, directly incorporates
human interactions in all their elaborate complexity
into these (e.g. creative interactions among people,
biota, and their environments).
E.g. How do human use and management of
biodiversity affect ecological processes and
patterns? How have human interactions with taxa
—from gathering to domestication—influenced
evolution and systematics
Landscapes and global trends
 Smaller-scale human, biota, and environmental interactions often
play out at higher levels of communities, landscapes and global
trends.
E.g. Landscape transformations are dependent on distributions of
culture, biota, and environments
The complex links between human cultures and
biodiversity are of great concern to Ethnobiology
Cosmological, Moral and Spiritual Significance
 “How did the world happen?", "how and why did people come to be?",
"what are proper practices, and why?", and "what realities exist beyond
or behind our physical experience?"
 This area of ethnobiological study helps to understand the relationship
among the three pillars of philosophy- the spiritual world, the natural
world and human world.
 The way a certain population perceives the world and cosmos is termed
as cosmovision. Consmovision describes the role of supernatural
powers, the relationship between human beings and nature and the way
natural processes takes place.
 Ethnobiological classification
Is one aspect of Traditional classification’
People respond to biodiversity by grouping into category
 Based on
 similarity & differences
 Utilization, etc
Folk classification & Ethnotaxonomy are examples of TK
Folk classification is defined as the way in which members
of a language community name and categorizes plants and
animals
Ethnotaxonomy is a term referring to the hierarchical
structure, organic content, and cultural function of
biological classification that ethnobiologists appear to find in
every society around the world.
Therefore, it is a form of organizing local communities'
knowledge and it may represent different behavioral
responses of people related to the salience of each
organism,
Approaches in Ethnobiological Classification
Unlike the classification system currently employed by
modern scientists, the mechanisms of classification
and identification for plants and animals in indigenous
communities are triggered by the perceived
 Morphological approach,
 Ecological approach,
 Utilitarian/cultural affinities between organisms,
 Experience (sensory perception) approach, experiential
knowledge gained by the people classifying the entity.
These approaches of ethnobiological classifications
that are pervasive cross-culturally.
These approaches also have sub-categories based on
utility such as nutritional, medicinal, technical or
ritual.
 Morphological approach
 Linnaean classification system (first reported in Genera
Plantarum (1737)) has little to do with ecology of plants or the
role of plants in human life. It is based largely on floral
morphology and orientation of floral characters.
 Traditional classification systems also use morphology as a
primary criterion. Certain morphological characteristics taken
into consideration include size, shape and number of tubers
 Pharmacological properties in medicine, economic
significance as food, and symbolic salience in ritual are
secondary criteria.
 The morphological characteristics used are, plant height,
hairiness, ear head shape and structure, seed colour, shape
and luster, and stem colour.
 Stem juiciness, midrib colour, grain shape, plumpness,
covering and size, as well as glume colour and hairiness, are
used to classify the sorghum landraces in Ethiopia.
 Several inset landrace in Sidama
Ecological approach
Ecology also plays a role in how people classify
flora and fauna of a given area.
plays an important part in whether a biotic
category will be seen and thus will be culturally
recognized by the local people
Use of ecological adaptation or ecoform of plants.
An exclusive morphological characteristics +
landscape characteristics
 Habitat and dispersal mechanism
 Habitat: is often used to differentiate spp. with similar
morphology.
 Sensory perception approach
 Many indigenous people use the 5 physical senses (sight, touch,
taste, smell and sound) to identify and classify plants.
 Peoples‘ experience with the plants organoleptic properties
allows for identification and classification
 Sensory perception criteria are also used by indigenous people to
identify closely related plants, belonging to the same genera
E.g. Healers, in particular, use touch and smell in identification and
classification of medicinal plants.
Non-medicinal plants were more often reported to have no smell
or taste.
 Utilization approach
 People of different cultures classify plants and animals according
to their own use. Plants used for food, fodder, fuel, medicinal and
ritual
 the use and value placed on plants and animals, which differ
across cultures
 Ethnobiological classification is seen as a special purpose
classification that is driven by utilitarian concerns, social
concerns, or both utilitarian and symbolic significance
ETHNOBOTANY
Ethnobotany is the study of the relationship between (uses of) plants and
people / cultures: From ethno - study of people and botany - study of plants.
The term "ethnobotany" was first used by a botanist named
John W. Harshberger in 1895 while he was teaching at the
University of Pennsylvania.
Although the term was not used until 1895, practical interests
in ethnobotany go back to the beginning of civilization when
people relied on plants as a way of survival.
Ethnobotany tries to
 Describe and explain the complex relationship
 Focusing on how plants are used, managed, and perceived.

 How plants are used:

 Food Consumption
 Medicine Tools
 Cosmetics Currency
 Dying Literature
 Textiles Rituals(ceremony )
Scope of ethnobotany
Ethnobotanical studies range across space and
time, from archaeological investigations of the role
of plants in ancient civilizations to the
bioengineering of new crops.
 Furthermore, ethnobotany is not limited to non-
industrialized or non-urbanized societies ranging in
space and time
Space=all cultures, both urban & rural
Time=past and present (archeological studies).

Significance of Ethno botany

 Application of indigenous knowledge (IK or TEK) for
practical application in:
 Medicine, conservation, NR mgt, sustainable
co-existence
Discipline Relevance to Ethnobotany (interdisciplinary science )
 Botany: Study of plants
 Anthropology :The study of how different cultures use plants
 Ecology :How human interactions with plants and ecosystems affect
ecology
 Medicine : Study of medicinal uses of plants
 Chemistry :Study of composition of plants, especially medicinal plants
 Agriculture : Study of human domestication and management of plants,
especially traditional agriculture system
 Horticulture: Study of management of useful plants (fruits, vegetables,
ornamentals) in home garden or orchard
 Forestry : Study of human management of forest and forest trees
 Agroforestry: Study of land management for the simultaneous
production of food, crops and trees
 Archaeology : How ancient cultures used plants
 Economics Study of economic uses of plants
 Religious studies : Ritual uses of plants by different cultures and
religions Linguistics : Study of linguistic terminonology for plants and
plant parts by people of different language groups
 Systematics : Study of folk taxonomy, how different people classify
Being multidisciplinary, there is a great opportunity to
explore the ethnobotanical approach towards the modern
civilization and giving them a firm task, which should
include:
Conservation of plant species, including varieties of crops
and other forms of biological diversity.
Botanical inventories and assessment of the conservation
status of the species.
Sustainability in supplies of wild plant resources.
Enhanced food security, nutrition and healthcare.
Preservation, recovery and diffusion of local botanical
knowledge and wisdom.
Reinforcement of ethnic and national identity.
 Identification and development of new economic products
from plants, for instance food, crafts, herbal formulations,
horticultural plants, etc.
Practice of Ethnobotany
It requires
1. Botanical training for the identification
and preservation of plant specimens
2. Anthropological training to understand
the cultural concepts around the
perception of plants
3. Linguistic training to transcribe local
terms and understand native
morphology, syntax (rules how to
combine words to form phrases and
sentences), and semantics (meaning).
Areas of Ethnobotanical studies
Archeothnobotany Ethnotaxonomy
Ethnoecology Ethnotoxicology
Ethnomedicine Paleoethnobotany
Ethnogynaecology Ethnocosmetics
Ethnonarcotics Ethnolinguistics
Ethnopharmacology
Archeothnobotany
Identification of plant materials from archeological sites
 To undertand human cultures
 Origin, dispersal, and domestication of crops, etc e.g.
potato
 It is closely linked to ethnobotany, as it is difficult to
understand the ecology of modern environments without
considering the environmental history that often involves
prehistoric human interventions.
Ethnoecology
Study of the way different groups of people in d/t
locations understand
 ecosystems around them
 Environment around them
 Their r/p with these
 How these r/p has been sustained over time
Ethnoecology is a multidisciplinary field- including
Biology
Anthropology
Ethology
Linguistic
Economics etc…
Thus ethnoecology is not limited to pure science; it
can help to understand the dynamic relations
between biodiversity, social and cultural systems.
Ethnomedicine
Study of traditonal medicine
Studies both documented & undocumented
practices
Is stimulus for drug discovery and development
Ethnogynaecology
 Deals with various diseases among women in tribal societies.
E.g. Sterility, conception, abortion, etc
 Use of abortificient
 The drugs obtained from the plants to treat certain
gynaecological problems have been reported to be useful and
safe.
Ethnonarcotics
 Study of the use of narcotics, snuffs, hallucinogens, etc in
primitive human societies E.g. Tobacco, opiates
 Opium (Paparum somniferum) is used therapeutically in
ancient cultures to induce calm and to relieve pain, and
recreationally to induce euphoric dream states.
 Tobacco (Nicotiana tobacum), one of the main narcotics is
used for smoking and chewing. Tobacco smoking was made
known to Europeans , about the year 1492, having been
observed by followers of Columbus when visiting the West
Indian island.
Ethnopharmacology
Is the scientific study correlating ethnic
groups, their health, and how it relates to their
physical habits and methodology in creating
and using medicines.
It is amalgamation of ethology &
pharmacology i.e., studies pharmacological
aspect of a culture, medicinal treatment as
well as its social appeal, including taste,
symbology, & religious context.
Focuses on bio-evaluation of effectiveness of
traditional medicine.
Ethnopharmacy=study of perception, use &
management of pharmaceteucals within a
given society.
N.B. When investigating a natural products
used by a certain culture as a medicine, it is
important that the method of collection,
extraction, preparation are the same or
similar to those by the ethnic group as it is
these processes which have allowed safe
usage of the substance and give its safety
records. .

Ethnotaxonomy
Study of taxonomic systems defined and used
by individual ethinic groups or the operative
individual taxonomy itself.
For instance, Categorizing of plants as "useful"
Ethnotoxicology
Studies the use of toxic or poisonous plants by tribal
people
 E.g. fish poison, arrow poison.
 Phytochemicals capable of killing animals.
 Poisonous plants contain powerful toxic ingredients (phyto-
chemicals) which if introduced into the body of any animal
system, may be of relatively smaller quantity, will affect
deleteriously and may be fatal at times
Paleobotany
is the archaeological sub-field that study of plant remains
Research themes
 Recovery and identification of plant remains
 The then use of wild plants
 Origin of agriculture
 Domestication
 Co-evolution of plant –human interaction
Ethnocosmetics
Deals with the study of cosmetics of ancient
past for beutification of women.
certain plants were used as cosmetics by
ancient people to look themselves much better.
 Rosa chinosis
 R. centifolia
 R. damascena are still used for making cosmetics

and perfumes.
Mostly done by extraction of essential oils
Lawsonia innermis has long been used in many
parts of the world for coloring of palms, hands,
soles and nails
Ethnolinguistics
Studies language of a particular ethnic group.
Particularly,
 studies the use of minority language within the
context of the majority population, and
 studies the perception of the language by the majority
population
E.g. language of immigrants
More generally it studies the way perception and
conceptualization influences language and show
how this is linked to different cultures and societies.
E.g. spatial orientation – East vs west = sun rise vs
sun set
 Language vs reality
Ethnobotanical uses of plants
 If plants did not exist, human life would not be possible
 Is that true?
 Plants contribute greatly to various practical human needs such as
 Food
 Spices
 Beverages
 Medicine
 Technology
 Nutraceuticals
 Plants often have a ritual character and/ or are used because of their
hallucinogenic character.
 Nowadays their chemical and genetic constituents are being increasingly
explored for human benefit.
 All members of the human family depend on plants for their survival in
myriad different ways; today we also depend on them for many of our
opportunities to improve the quality of human life in the future.
 Plants are fundamental to the functioning of all human societies and to the
operation of all ecosystems.
 In terms of the energy from biomass that we are so actively seeking to
develop now, they also provide the hope for energy supplies in the future.
 Yet despite their central importance, plants are often poorly appreciated.
Plants as food
Plants meet all nutrients needed.
 Vegetarians
Food plants include
1. Cereals
2. Pulses
3. Vegetables

1. Cereals
the cereals are the most important source of
plant food for man.
Cereal grains are dry simple indehiscent fruits
characteristically called caryopsis which are
obtained from 7 members of Poaceae family
(formerly Gramineae).
They are classified into
 A. Major cereals – large grain plants
 E.g. wheat, rice, barley, maize
 B. Millet and minor cereals –small grain plants
 E.g. jowgar (sorghum spp), preel millet
2. Pulses
 Source of protein, carbohydrate and fats
 E.g. chickpea, pea, soybean
3. Vegetables
 Plants whose roots, stems, leaves and fruits are edible
 Sources of CHO, protein, vitamins and minerals
 Classified in to three
Vegetables -from modified roots and stems
E.g. turnip, beetroot, carrot
Vegetables -from leaves and flowers
E.g. cauliflower, cabbage, onion, garlic
Vegetables from-fruits and seeds
E.g. tomatoes, gourd, banana
Plants for Spices
 In general, spices are dry hard parts of plants that are added
to food and drinks in pulverized state to produce good taste
and flavor
 Add flavor, aroma, special taste
 Remove bad odour and taste
 Stimulate appetite
 They cannot be termed food because they have little or no
nutritive value
 Commonly called food adjutants
 E.g.
 Cardamin
 Cinnamon
 Cloves
 Ginger
 Pepper
Plants as Beverages
Drinks that stimulate, give exhilaration, increase
agitation
Coca and cocaine, chat, tea coffee, etc are
stimulating beverages.
In the early part of the 20th century, some
stimulating synthetic beverages have been widely
used.
Classified as
Alcoholic
Non- alcoholic, soft drinks, are prepared from
unfermented fruit juices, flower syrups or from
dried leaves and seeds of various seeds. E.g., coca,
cocain, khat, coffee, tea, etc
 Plants as medicine
Indigenous people and medicinal plants
Indigenous knowledge in using medicinal plants,
percentage of populations depend on medicinal plants for
health care, increase in demand for medicinal plant in both
developed and developing countries at present
Medicinal plants-plants used for primary health care, as
remedy for disease and injury
 Include food plants that have medicinal value
E.g. foods, drinks, herbs, spices
Vegetations are drug stores for traditional people
Finding the right plants, however, was often a matter of
trial and error.
It is not hard to imagine that many natives died chewing
on the wrong plant roots or drinking a toxic tea steeped
from leaves or bark in an effort to stave off illness.
WHO- 80% world people rely on traditional medicine

 In modern medicine:
 Plant based drugs 25% of total drugs –USA
 Plant based drugs 80% of total drugs –India and China
 High economic importance.
 80% of world population can’t afford products of western drug
industries.
Medicinal plants of Ethiopia
 Medicinal plant of Ethiopia and that of other developing countries
play major supplementary roles to the limited modern health
care available.
 Many studies showed the significant role of medicinal plant in
primary health care delivery in Ethiopia where 70% of human and
90% of livestock population depend on traditional medicine
 similar to many developing countries, particularly that of Sub-
Saharan African countries.
 Those plants are part of the economic commodity for some
members of the society which make their livelihood on their
collection, trade and medicinal practices by practitioners or
healers.
 It is thus has a substantial potential to make contributions to the
TM system in d/t parts of the world have some
distinctive
Chinese TM
Indian Ayurvedic Medicine
Japanese TM
African TM
The Ethiopian TM system
Sub-category of Africa TM system
Influenced by Egypt and Greece
The traditional health practitioners can be
generally categorized into:
Herbalist
Bone setting
Traditional birth attendants
Spiritual healer
 Diviners & magicians
Each of these categories is with mixed
responsibilities and identities at times.
 Herbalists are considered to be the biggest
group that uses medicinal plants.
 Practitioners use in one way or the other plants
and plant products in their medical practices.
Most of the written records on medicinal plant
lack the coverage of oral tradition.
 Most Ethiopian traditional medicinal knowledge
is kept in strict secrecy; however, it is dynamic in
that the practitioners make every effort to widen
their scope by reciprocal exchange of limited
information with each other or through reading
the traditional pharmacopeias.
In the traditional market places in Ethiopia,
medicinal plants are usually associated with
spices and herbs.
They have to be looked for in the areas of the
market, where spices and herbs are displayed
on roadsides during religious ceremonies
around churches and mosques.
In the country, the informal trade of medicinal
plants takes the major share in rural areas.
But a few healers (mostly in towns)
commercialize just the crude materials or
charge together with the treatment they
provide upon their diagnosis.
Medicinal plants diversity & distribute in
Ethiopia
Various agro ecological zones of Ethiopia
accommodate various types of medicinal plants
Studies showed that the woodlands, Montane
vegetation including grasslands and forests
Woodlands – high concentration
Montane vegetation including
 Grassland and forests
Evergreen shrubs
Rocky areas
The greater concentration of medicinal plants are
found in the south and south western Ethiopian
parts of the country following the concentration of
biological and cultural diversity
Medicinal plants from the central, north and
northwestern part of Ethiopia are thus small
fractions of the medicinal plants present in
the country.
Study on the Bale Mountains National Park in
the South East Ethiopia revealed that the
area, as much as it is a biodiversity hotspot,
also turned out to be a medicinal plant
hotspot with 337 identified medicinal species
of which 24 are endemic.
The species comprised of 283 which are used
as human medicine, 47 used as livestock
medicine and 76 species used for both human
and livestock by the community healers,
harvesters, traders and users.
Medicinal plants situation in Ethiopia
 More than 1,000 identified medicinal plant species are
reported in the Ethiopian Flora, however, many others are not
yet identified.
 About 300 of these species are frequently mentioned in many
sources.
 Some researchers estimated that about 60% of the Ethiopian
flora to be medicinal and most sources give about 10% of the
vascular flora to be medicinal.
 The list cover plants that are widely used by the local
communities in lowlands and highlands for treating human
ailments and some of them for livestock ailments as well as for
prevention of pests and vectors
 Some of traditional plants in Ethiopia
 Dingetegna
 Endod
 Metere
 Gizawa
 Gulo zeit
Dingetegna (Taverniera abyssinica): This
Ethiopian traditional medicinal plant has
been used to treat sudden illness
characterized by fever and stomachache.
Both uses of the plant have been investigated
scientifically, and the conclusions support
them.
 Endod (Phytolacca dodecandra): This plant
is best known for its use in the control of
schistosomiasis which claims thousands of
lives in Ethiopia every year. Although various
parts of the plant are used directly by humans
for diseases such as ascariasis, gonorrhea,
malaria, rabies, syphilis, etc., endod berries
are used as a molluscicidal agent to help to
Metere (Glinus lotoides): From many plants
that are known to be used to treat tapeworm
infestation (taeniasis)
 The plant has also been shown to be
relatively safe and effective.
 Gizawa (Withania somnifera): In Ethiopia,
this plant is used for joint infection, arthritis
and malaria.
Studies have shown that it indeed exhibits
antibiotic, anti-inflammatory and antimalarial
activities.
These findings are in support of similar uses
of the plant in Ethiopian traditional medicine.
Gulo zeit (Ricinus communis): Among other uses of the
plant, the oil from the seeds is used in Ethiopia as a
purgative to soften the digestive tract.
Castor oil is commonly used in modern medicine to cleanse
the gut prior to medical procedures.
It is no wonder then that the oil from this plant is used in
Ethiopian traditional medicine as a purgative.
Bahr zaf (Eucalyptus spp.): Eucalyptus globulus (nech bahr
zaf) is the most abundant species.
Apart from its immense economic utility, Eucalyptus is also
used as a medicinal agent.
The vapor obtained from boiling the leaves is inhaled as a
common household remedy to treat common cold
symptoms.
In conventional medicine, the oil obtained from the leaves
is used to make ointments and cough preparations
 Ethiopian medicinal plants are supported by scientific
studies, or parallel uses in modern medicine
Plants for technology
 Application of knowledge and experience to create
products and ways of meeting societies’ needs through
the use of resources for particular purpose.
 Tools
 Weapons
 Utensils
 Medicine
 Fiber
 Digging sticks
 Netting and trapping equipments
 Cutting equipment
 Hunting and fighting equipments, etc
 The application of knowledge to create technologies is an
integral part of the heritage and future of human being.
It is also essential to sustainable development.
Plants for Nutraceutical
Nutraceutical, a term combining the words nutrition‖
and pharmaceutical, is a food or food product that
provides health and medical benefits, including the
prevention and treatment of disease
The term nutraceutical‘ was coined in 1979 by
Stephen DeFelice
Such products may range from
Isolated nutrients
Dietary supplements
Specific dietes
Genetically engineered foods
Herbal products
Processed foods
 Cereals, soups and beverages
Such foods commonly called functional foods
Categories of nutraceuticals
1. Nutrients: substances with established
nutritional functions, such as vitamins,
minerals, amino acids and fatty acids
2. Herbals: herbs or botanical products as
concentrates and extracts
3. Dietary supplements: reagents derived
from other sources (e.g. pyruvate,
chondroitin sulphate, steroid hormone
precursors) serving specific functions, such
as sports nutrition, weight-loss supplements
and meal replacements.
Traditional and Nontraditional Nutraceuticals
Nutraceuticals on the market today consist of
both traditional foods and nontraditional foods.
Traditional nutraceuticals are simply natural,
whole foods with new information about their
potential health qualities.
There has been no change to the actual foods,
other than the way the consumer perceives them
Nontraditional nutraceuticals, on the other hand,
are foods resulting from agricultural breeding or
added nutrients and/or ingredients
Methods in Ethnobotanical Study
Practical techniques for the ethnobotanist in the field began
to take shape as Harshberger and others who followed in his
footsteps created a template for study in the field.
In their research, ethnobotanists need to be prepared to ask
the following questions:
 What are the fundamental ideas and conceptions of people
living in a particular region about the plant life surrounding
them?
 What effect does a given environment have on the lives,
customs, religion, thoughts, and everyday practical affairs of
the people studied?
 In what ways do the people make use of the local plants for
food, medicine, material culture, and ceremonial purposes?
 How much knowledge do the people have of the parts,
functions, and activities of plants?
 How are plant names categorized in the language of the people
studied, and what can the study of these names reveal about
the culture of the people?
Research design
It is essential to define first the goals of the ethnobotanical
study (project) before selecting the approach which best
suits the interests, budget and schedule.
Most methods used in ethnobotanical and ethnoecological
studies are time-consuming and can be expensive
Long-term projects allow working with local people to
record ecological knowledge in a variety of contexts,
including ritual occasions and seasonal farming activities.
But sometimes it is not possible to conduct a long-term
project. In these cases, Rapid Ethnobotanical Appraisal
similar to the following example can be used.
Data collection in ethnobotany
Collecting and identifying plants
They allow taxonomists to identify the family,
genus and species of a collection. Collection,
identification and preservation of the collected
specimen follow
Interviewing
Native language should be used, and in general
questions should not be complicated or
ambiguous. Various field interview techniques
exist
Techniques of inquiry for interview
Participant observation
 This technique is based on observing human-plant
interactions, such as wild plant gathering or homegarden
management
Ethnobotanical inventory or field interview
 It consists of walking in the field or in the forest with an
informant, listens to him and asking him about plants and
collecting and taking notes on them and their uses.
 time-consuming
Artifact interview
 In this interview the researcher asks the informants, for
example, while visiting them at home about the plants which
are employed in the manufacture or preparation of particular
items
Group interview
 the ethnobotanist conducts interviews with a group of
informants. Group discussions can produce a wealth of data
Types of interviews
Informal interview
The informal interview has no structure; the
researcher simply makes notes during or after casual
conversations
Unstructured interview
This type of interview has the appearance of a casual
conversation, but the actors involved know that it is an
interview. It develops within the framework established
by the researcher.
 Semi-structured interview
In this type of interview the fieldworker has a list of
questions and topics that need to be covered, but this
list is only a guide, it allows the researcher to be
flexible.
 Structured interview
This interview bases on fixed questions and is mainly
Processing and analysis of ethnobotanical data
Processing
Ethnobotanical data should be organized in a way
that facilitates statistical analysis. A matrix with
different fields should be defined
Analysis
By analyzing the matrix, several quantitative
interpretations can be done, for instance the total of
used wild and cultivated plants subject to different
ethnic groups
Presentation
The results can be presented as tables and graphs.
Tables present data in rows and columns, permitting
the contrast of values or related categories. Graphs
typically relate two dimensions, such as quantity or
membership in a category
Ethnozoology:
Ethno-zoology: is the study of the past and present
interrelationships between human cultures and the
animals in their environment. It includes
Classification and naming of zoological forms,
Cultural knowledge and use of wild and domestic
animals.
History of animal use by human beings dates back to
the origin of human race.
Ethnozoology subdivided in to further sub
disciplines;
Ethnoentomology – use, classification, naming of
insects
Ethnoherpetology – use, classification, naming of
reptiles
Ethnoornithology, use, classification, naming of birds,
Other fields of studies that are correlated with
ethnozoology are fields such as
 zoo-archaeology,
 ecological anthropology
 Human ecology

Animals that are of societies’ interest for most part, either for their
use - food, medicinal, ritual, agricultural uses and
services - tool in scientific study, and many more.
The example of uses and services of animals include:
Contribution to the world biodiversity.
 invertebrates and vertebrates, Domestic and wild
animals, Free-living & symbiont’s
Source of beef and dairy products (both domestic and
wild animals)
Serve as agricultural animals and transportation
E.g. In Ethiopia agrarian societies,
 oxen are used in plowing and

 horses, mules, donkeys; camels serve in transportation

of people and loads.

Serve for religious purposes
 Symbolic representation of gods
 Ritual sacrifices (color, sex, age and behavior of the
animal is important during sacrifices)
 Purification - in India, the Hindu religion has used five
products of the cow for purification since ancient times
 Companionship
 Dogs has been a best partner to human since domestication
started, helping indigenous peoples in tending their cattle herd and
hunting activities
Medicine in traditional and modern society
 Ancient Egypt used substances derived from animals as
medicine: cattle milk, bee honey, lizard blood, ox organs,
swallow's liver, bat limbs, ambergris from the sperm whale
The Jewish people used honey was to treat bulimia
and goat's milk to cure coughing (sources: the
Mishna (1st–3rd centuries) and the Talmud (4th –
5th centuries))
Archives of civilizations of ancient Mesopotamia (the
Assyrian and the Babylonian) use fish oil, beeswax
and honey, mongoose blood, turtle shell, goat's skin,
gazelle, deer and sheep sinew, bird excrement, and
animal fat
 Attitudes towards Animals
“Attitude” - the bases of interaction among animals.
What is the basis of the environmental interactions of
human and non-human animals?
Try to answer the following questions
How do you define yourself?
 Who are you?
 Species ???
 Name?

 Roles?

 Occupation - student
 Gender – male or female

 Efficiency – strong or week

The above questions determines your world

view, particularly, your interaction with
nature –animals
The environmental interactions of human beings,
unlike those of other species, are greatly
influenced by thought, knowledge, and language.

Human perspectives on the human–animal

relationships is:-
a reflection of what we have learned from our
families, society, media, education and
scientific research magazines.
Media:-
spoken

unspoken attitudes

Assumptions
 Modern society’s Perspectives on Animals
Human beings are part of the so-called animal kingdom.
Paradoxical relationship
 Universally, we humans seem to sense or intuit our
proximity and affinities with other animals yet likewise
require our distinct identity from other animals.
Anthropology by definition is overtly anthropocentric
and speciesist, relegating non-human animals to the
category of ‘other’.
Ironically then, when looking cross-culturally, most
humans to some extent appear to categorize certain
animals, depending on culturally specific criteria, as
 Allegorical – snake, dove
 mythological - owl, spiritually important animals
 Important tribal object for themselves – camels, cattle,
  Animals are a fact of life in our greater ecological niches,
but other creatures also seem to hold a place in the
spiritual realm as well.
 humans seem simultaneously to anthropomorphize and

yet polarize other animals,

E.g. Depending upon cultural constructions, and how the
identity and power issues of the dog are specified by the
humans involved, a dog can be regarded as
 best friend or

 frightening assailant, or

 even dinner – food

There are certain factors, governing the

modern human being’s attitude towards each
group of animals. The factors include
 nutritional restriction,
emotion
familiarity/unfamiliarity.
Nutritional restriction
In no culture man would use all animals for
food:
 eating pets
vegetarians
Accompanying emotion
Nomads “cared” for animals, although ruling was the main
trend in the relationships.
Pets are kept for the sake of emotions and their feelings are
presumed to be satisfied.
Familiarity/Unfamiliarity
People may include contacts with wild animals in
circuses, zoos and animal parks, as well as with
laboratory animals, doves or parasites.
The relationship between tamed animals and their
keeper develops similarly to the one between pets and
their keepers.
The most attractive qualities of pets are considered to
be their anthropomorphic features
the possibility for non-verbal communication
 Animals acting like people get a new role in comic

strips and animated cartoons.

anthropomorphized animals do not retain their
original animal qualities. E.g. City children may
know the duck from animal cartoons better than
the domestic fowl of the same name.
 Ethno-medicine Animals and Traditional Medicine
Ethnomedicine is concerned with the cultural interpretations of
health, disease and illness and also addresses the health care
seeking process and healing practices.
Zoo-therapy - The healing of human
ailments by using therapeutics based on
medicines obtained from animals or
ultimately derived from the uses of animals to
treat ailments of humans
Ethno-veterinary - is a science that involves
the popular practical knowledge used to treat
and prevent animal diseases.
Traditional human populations have a broad
natural pharmacopoeia (an official publication
containing a list of medicinal drugs with their
effects and directions for their use) consisting of
wild animal species.
E.g. In Traditional Chinese Medicine, more than 1500 medicinally
used animal species have been recorded.
In India nearly 15–20 percent of the Ayurvedic medicine is
based on animal-derived substances.
In Bahia State, in Brazil, over 180 medicinal animals have
been recorded.
The idea behind the medical use of animal excrements was to
fight evil with evil or, generally spoken - to cure like with like.
In Chinese traditional medicine, walnut is supposed to
be useful for curing head ailments because it has the
signatures of the human brain.
This belief that animals and plants resembling human
body parts, animals, or other objects, would have
special healing powers.  “doctrine of signature”.
Yet another use of animals or parts of animals due to
their symbolic meanings exemplified with the so-called
doctrine of mummies.
 A shell of a snail, having the shape resembling an ear,
serves as container for a bottle of traditional herbal
medicine against earaches.
Scientific & common Life form Part used Medicinal use
name
Tragelaphus strepsiceros Mammals Urine Abdominal pain
Greater kudu (Antelope)
Civettictus civetta Mammals Musk Asthma, urinary
African civet (hyena) disorder
Bat sp Mammals Blood Aphrodisiac
(stimulate sexual
desire)
Phacochoerus africanus Mammals Meat Measles, wound
Wart-hog
Struthio camelus Bird Egg Asthma
Ostrich
Python sebae Reptiles Fat&skin Chest pain
African rock python
Hystrix cristata Mammals Meat Abdominal pain
UNIT 4. INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE AND PEOPLE

Indigenous peoples-are people, communities, and

nations who claim a historical continuity and cultural
affinity with societies endemic to original territories
that developed prior to exposure to the larger
connected civilization associated with Western culture.
Indigenous Knowledge (IK)- the knowledge that an
indigenous (local) community accumulates over
generations of living in a particular environment. This
definition encompasses all forms of knowledge:
technologies, know-how, skills, practices and beliefs
that enable the community to achieve stable
livelihoods in their environment.
Indigenous cultural and intellectual property
(ICIP)
“ICIP" refers to indigenous peoples’ rights to
their heritage.
Heritage comprises: all objects, sites and
knowledge, the nature or use of which has been
transmitted or continues to be transmitted from
generation to generation
Terms are used interchangeably to refer to the
concept of IK:
Traditional Knowledge (TK)
Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK)
Local Knowledge (LK)
Indigenous Knowledge System (IKS)
Different international organizations have recognized the
important roles of IK
1. World Health Organization (WHO): is an international
body that is part of the UN.
Its objective is to have people attain the highest possible
level of health.
In its Traditional Medicine Strategy 2002-2005, recognizes
the important role of TK and medicines in the health and
well-being of indigenous peoples around the world.
2. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
CBD has been ratified by 178 countries
It points out, TK is of great importance not only to IP but
also to the Western society, as well.
Many plant-based medicines and cosmetics are derived from
TK and other articles include agricultural and non-timber
forest products.
Article 8(j) of the Convention on Biological
Diversity states:
Each contracting Party shall, as far as possible
and as appropriate : subject to national
legislation, respect, preserve and maintain
knowledge, innovations and practices of
indigenous and local communities embodying
traditional lifestyles relevant for the conservation
and sustainable use of biological diversity and
promote their wider application with the
approval and involvement of the holders of such
knowledge, innovations and practices and
encourage the equitable sharing of the benefits
arising from the utilization of such knowledge
innovations and practices.
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
entered into force on 29 December 1993.It has 3
main objectives:
 To conserve biological diversity – biodiversity plays
several ecological services: Provisioning (production of
food and water), regulation (control of
climate and disease), supporting (nutrient cycles and
oxygen production), and cultural, such as spiritual and
recreational benefits
 In-situ conservation (“on-site conservation”)

 Ex-situ Conservation (“off-site conservation”)

 To use biological diversity in a sustainable fashion

 To share the benefits of biological diversity fairly and

equitably
- Access to the genetic resources and sharing of benefits
arising from their use would contribute to conservation
and sustainable use of these genetic resources.
 Bio-prospecting company

Phytolacca dodecandra– molluscicidal and

many other use
Indigenous or native people have always a
significant relationship with the ecosystems in which
they live.
 These ecosystems are vital for their survival for food,
shelter, and tools, medicines and religious rituals
they, in turn, serve as stewards of their
environments
They view the world they live in as an integrated
whole.
The many stories, songs, dances, paintings and
other forms of expression are therefore important
aspects of indigenous cultural knowledge, power
and identity.
Special features of indigenous knowledge/traditional knowledge
IK is:
 local, in that it is rooted in a particular community and location
 tacit knowledge and, therefore, not easily codifiable.
 transmitted orally, or through imitation and demonstration. Codifying
it may lead to the loss of some of its properties.
 experiential rather than theoretical knowledge. Experience and trial
and error, tested in the rigorous laboratory of survival of local
communities constantly reinforce IK.
 learned through repetition, which is a defining characteristic of
tradition even when new knowledge is added. Repetition aids in the
retention and reinforcement of IK.
 constantly changing, being produced as well as reproduced,
discovered as well as lost; though it is often perceived by external
observers as being somewhat static.
Characteristics of traditional ecological knowledge

Traditional ecological knowledge is:

 Holistic: all things are interconnected and nothing is comprehended in
isolation;
 Intuitive: based on deeply held holistic understanding and knowledge;
 Qualitative: knowledge is gained through intimate contact with the local
environment, while noting patterns or trends in its flora, fauna, and natural
phenomena. It is based on data collected by resource users through
observation and hands-on experience;
 Transmitted intergenerationally by oral tradition: teaching is
accomplished through stories and participation of children in culturally
important activities;
 Governed by a Supreme Being: the Creator defines a moral universe with
appropriate laws;
 Moral: there are right ways and wrong ways to relate to the environment;
Comparisons between traditional and scientific knowledge styles

No Traditional Knowledge Scientific Knowledge

1 Assumed to be the truth Assumed to be a best approximation

2 Sacred and interconnected Secular (non-religious) segregated

3 Teaching through storytelling Formal teaching

4 Learning by doing and experiencing Learning by formal education (molding)

5 Oral and visual Written

6 Integrated, based on whole system Analytical, based on parts of the whole

7 Intuitive Model or theory based

8 Holistic (based on complete systems) Reductionist (reduces complex systems to

simpler systems)

9 Subjective (based on personal Objective (not based on personal opinion)

experience/beliefs)

10 Experiential (based on experience) Positivist (based on facts)

Exchange of indigenous knowledge is a process, comprising
essentially six steps:
 Recognition and identification: Making the IK embedded in a mix of
technologies/cultural values recognizable
 Validation: assessment of significance and relevance (to solving problems),
reliability (i.e., not being an accidental occurrence), functionality (how well
does it work?), effectiveness and transferability;
 Recording and documenting: is a major challenge because of the tacit nature
of IK
 Storage in retrievable repositories: in text document, electronic format,
tapes, films, story telling, gene banks
 Transfer: conveying the knowledge to the recipient and testing of the
knowledge in the new environment
 Dissemination to a wider community
 Exchange of IK: is the ideal outcome of a successful transfer and
dissemination. the community where an IK practice originates, the agent that
transmits the practice, and the community that adopts and adapts the practice all
Framework for action
Framework of action is needed to respond to the challenge of better
integrating IK into the development process. This include four pillars:
 Disseminating information
o Developing a database of IK practices, lessons learned, sources, partners, etc.
o Identifying and testing instruments for capture and dissemination of IK.
o Publishing selected cases in print and electronic format.
 Facilitating exchange of IK among developing communities
o Helping build local capacity to share IK, especially among the local IK centers.
o Identifying appropriate methods of capturing, disseminating IK among
communities.
o Facilitating a global network to exchange IK.
 Applying indigenous knowledge in the
development process.
Raising awareness of the importance of IK among
development partners.
Helping countries to prepare national policies in
support of indigenous practices.
Integrating indigenous practices in
programs/projects supported by partners.
Building partnerships
Learning from local communities and NGOs
Leveraging limited resources of partners to obtain
greater development impact.
Addressing the intellectual property rights issue of
indigenous knowledge
Indigenous Knowledge in Natural Resource Management
IK is the basis for self sufficiency and self-
determination for local communities because:
They are familiar with indigenous practices and
technologies.
Indigenous knowledge uses local resources
IK gives local people and development workers
extra options
Indigenous technologies and practices are often
cheaper
In Burkina Faso, meteorologists and farmers are working
together to forecast weather
In Northern Tanzania, Kenya and Ethiopia, small holders
returned to agroforestry, a complex system of a highly
interwoven and interdependent mix of annual and
perennial plants that the international researchers began
to understand fully.
In Barotse land in the upper Zambezi Valley in central
Southern Africa, it was a serious offence to kill a fertile
female animal. The killing of animal was restricted to male
and older animals.
Both the Barotse people and the Bomba of Luapula
Province of Zambia had a tradition of avoiding the
catching of very small fish. Communities observed fishing
seasons usually through a set of traditional ceremonies.
Such a ceremony would usually open the fishing season for
a given period.
Local people in different parts of the Ethiopia
have accumulated locally specific knowledge of
natural resource management. Examples of
indigenous resource management practices
include
 Borena Pastoral Community
 Soil conservation of people in Maybar (South Wello) and

Konso
 Irob Innovation in Tigray
 Indigenous irrigation of Kore People in Amaro Special

Woreda (Southern Ethiopia)