Introduction to Psychology

What is Psychology?

The scientific study of behavior and mental

processes and how they are affected by an
organism’s physical, state, mental state,
and external environment.
 What is Psychology?
The scientific study of behavior and mental
processes and how they are affected by an
organism’s physical, state, mental state,
and external environment.
• Scientific study requires several
things:
1. Theoretical framework
2. Testable Hypotheses
3. Empirical evidence
 What is Psychology?

The scientific study of behavior and mental

processes and how they are affected by an
organism’s physical, state, mental state,
and external environment.
• Behavior and mental processes include
overt, observable instances but also
include subtle kinds of instances, like
brain activity.
 What is Psychology?

The scientific study of behavior and mental

processes and how they are affected by an
organism’s physical, state, mental state,
and external environment.
• Humans and may other creatures
included in the scientific study of
behavior and mental processes
 What is Psychology?

The scientific study of behavior and mental

processes and how they are affected by an
organism’s physical state, mental state,
and external environment.
• Physical state relates primarily to the
organism’s biology - most especially
the state of the brain and central
nervous system
 What is Psychology?

The scientific study of behavior and mental

processes and how they are affected by an
organism’s physical state, mental state,
and external environment.
• Mental state does not have to be
conscious - can study mental states in
many creatures without their
conscious awareness - and can be
studied in terms of brain activity.
 What is Psychology?

The scientific study of behavior and mental

processes and how they are affected by an
organism’s physical state, mental state,
and external environment.
• All organisms function in an
environment that is constantly
presenting them with problems and
challenges that must be solved.
 What is Psychology?

The scientific study of behavior and mental

processes and how they are affected by an
organism’s physical state, mental state,
and external environment.
• Most people think of psychology as the
study of differences between people,
but it also includes the study of
similarities between people.
HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY
 www.whatispsychology.biz

1. STRUCTURALISM:
 In 1879, Wilhelm Wundt
established the first
“psychological” laboratory in
Germany. He is widely viewed
as the founder of psychology.
 He attempted to uncover the
structure of consciousness by
breaking down mental
processes into their most
basic components.
 This was done through a
process called introspection.
 Wundt’s approach became
known as structuralism.
 www.whatispsychology.biz

FUNCTIONALISM
 William James argued
that consciousness
cannot be broken down
into elements.
 He was concerned with
ongoing conscious
experience and the
functions of mental
processes.
 His views gave rise to
another branch of
psychology -
functionalism
 www.whatispsychology.biz

BEHAVIOURISM

 Behaviourists held the

view that only overt
behaviour can be
studied scientifically.
 They advocated the use
of strict experimental
procedures in
psychology.
 Supported by B. F.
Skinner, Ivan Pavlov
and John B. Watson
John B.
Watson
 www.whatispsychology.biz

GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY
 Gestalt psychology –
founded by Max
Wertheimer
 Focused on studying
mental processes and
behaviours as ‘wholes’
rather than trying to
separate them into
discrete functions or
parts.
 Held the view that “the
whole is greater than the
sum of its parts.”
 www.whatispsychology.biz

PSYCHOANALYSIS
 While other theorists
tried to explain varying
aspects of conscious
experience, Sigmund
Freud argued for the
role of the unconscious
and other internal
processes in human
behaviour and mental
disorders.
 His work formed the
foundation of
psychoanalytic theory
 www.whatispsychology.biz

HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY
 Humanistic
psychologists argued
that humans are not
helplessly controlled by
unconscious or
environmental forces –
we have free will, goals,
aspirations, and other
positive motives which
should be studied.
 Influenced by Carl
Rogers.
PERSPECTIVES OF PSYCHOLOGY
 1. BIOLOGICAL:

 Scientific study
of the biological
bases of
behavior and
mental states,
very closely
related to
neuroscience.
THE PSYCHOANALYTIC PERSPECTIVE:

 originated with the work

of Sigmund Freud.
 This perspective
emphasizes the role of
the unconscious mind,
early childhood
experiences, and
interpersonal
relationships to explain
human behavior and to
treat people suffering
from mental illnesses.
3. Behavioral Perspective:
Behavioral psychology is a
perspective that focuses on learned
behaviors. Today, the behavioral
perspective is still concerned with
how behaviors are learned and
reinforced.
 John Watson founded behaviorism
in the early 1900's. Watson
emphasized the scientific study of
observable behaviors rather then the
study of subjective mental process.
4. Humanistic
Perspective:

During the 1950s,

a school of thought
known as
humanistic psychol
ogy
emerged.
Influenced greatly
by the work of
prominent
humanists such as
Carl Rogers and
Abraham Maslow,
this perspective
emphasizes the
role of motivation
on thought and
behavior.
. COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE:

During the 1960s, a new perspective

known as cognitive psychology began
to take hold. This area of psychology
focuses on mental processes such as
memory, thinking, problem solving,
language and decision-making
PERSPECTIVES – SUMMARY
FIELDS OF PSYCHOLOGY
1. Experimental Psychology:
a general title applied to a variety of
psychologists who are trained in
designing and conducting research in
specific basic areas like learning,
sensation and perception, human
performance, and motivation and
emotion. A research oriented doctoral
degree (Ph.D.) is usually needed.
2. Biopsychology:
Take a comparative and ontogenetic
perspective in the experimental
analysis of basic psychological
processes as they relate to the many
ways in which animal species adapt,
survive, reproduce and evolve.
3. Developmental Psychology:
Concerned with growth and
development from conception till
death. All aspects of the animal or
human organism (physiological,
biological, physical, cognitive,
emotional, social, cultural) may be
studied.
4. Social Psychology:
study the ways in which the social
context affects the behavior of the
individual and groups in the real
world and the laboratory. Social
psychologists focus on topics such as
social roles, attitude formation and
change, affiliation, interpersonal
attraction and interaction,
conformity, and group processes.
5. Industrial / Organizational
Psychologists:
are concerned with the relation between
individuals and work. They are employed in
business and industry, in government, and in
colleges and universities, and may perform a
variety of jobs. An industrial/organizational
psychologist working in industry may study how
work is organized; suggest changes to improve
the satisfaction of employees, the quality of the
organization's services, and productivity; consult
with management on the development of
effective training programs for employees; design
programs for the early identification of
management potential; administer career
counseling and pre retirement counseling
programs; develop affirmative action programs;
recommend changes in job definition; design a
6. Educational Psychologists:
are concerned with a range of activities
from initial design through development
and evaluation of both materials and
procedures for education and training.
Such positions exist in public schools, in
the military, in private research and
development companies, and in industrial
concerns. They may deal with analyzing
education and training needs, with
developing materials for instruction in
various media, with designing the best
conditions for instruction, and with
evaluating the effectiveness of
instructional programs.
7. Clinical Psychologists:
are concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of
psychological disturbances. After graduate preparation
in an accredited university or school of professional
psychology, supervised postdoctoral experience, and
licensure or certification by the state, some clinical
psychologists enter independent practice/consulting
roles. Others find themselves responsible for a
complete range of psychological services in public
settings. Their responsibilities range from administering
and scoring psychological tests, to engaging in therapy,
to supervising the training of graduate students in the
delivery of mental health services, to administering a
community mental health program. Some clinical
psychologists obtain faculty positions in a college or
university where they perform research and train
graduate students. Others serve as adjunct (or part-
time) faculty, while maintaining independent clinical
practices. Many serve as consultants.
8. Counseling Psychologists:
are concerned with counseling, teaching,
consulting research, and/or administration.
In their work, they are particularly
concerned with the role of education and
work in an individual's functioning, and
with the interaction between individuals
and the environments in which they live.
Typically, counseling psychologists work
with normal or moderately maladjusted
persons, individually or in groups. This
work includes use of traditional counseling
interview methods, interest, ability and
personality tests, and educational and
occupational information.
9. Cross-cultural psychology
Is a branch of psychology that looks at
how cultural factors influence human
behavior. Learn more about what cross-
cultural psychology is and who should
study it.

10. Forensic Psychology:

It is defined as an intersection between
psychology and the criminal justice
system. It is applied to the criminal justice
system to evaluate
the psychology of the defendants.
11. Environmental psychology:
is an interdisciplinary field focused
on the interplay between humans
and their surroundings. The field
defines the term environment very
broadly including all that is natural
on the planet as well as social
settings, built environments, learning
environments and informational
environments.
METHODS
OF
PSYCHOLOGY
1. CASE HISTORY:
An in-depth study of one person. In a
case study, nearly every aspect of
the subject’s life and history is
analyzed to seek patterns and
causes for behavior. The hope is that
learning gained from studying one
case can be generalized to many
others. Unfortunately, case studies
tend to be highly subjective and it is
difficult to generalize results to a
larger population.
2. NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION:
Naturalistic observation is a method
of observation, commonly used by
psychologists, behavioral scientists
and social scientists, that involves
observing subjects in their
natural habitats. Researchers take
great care in avoiding making
interferences with the behavior they
are observing by using unobtrusive
methods. Objectively, studying
events as they occur naturally,
without intervention.
3. SURVEY METHOD:
Survey is a method of scientific
investigation in which a large sample
of people answer questions about
their attitudes or behavior.
4. EXPERIMENTAL METHOD:
The experimental method involves
manipulating one variable to determine if
changes in one variable cause changes in
another variable. This method relies on
controlled methods, random assignment
and the manipulation of variables to test a
hypothesis.
An experiment is a study of cause and
effect. It differs from non-experimental
methods in that it involves the
deliberate manipulation of one
variable, while trying to keep all
other variables constant.
 Parts of a Simple Experiment:
 The experimental hypothesis: a statement that predicts that
the treatment will cause an effect. The experimental hypothesis
will always be phrased as a cause-and-effect statement.
 The independent variable: the treatment variable that is
manipulated by the experimenter.
(stimulus)
 The dependent variable: the response that the experimenter is
measuring. (response)
 The control group: made up of individuals who are randomly
assigned to a group but do not receive the treatment. The
measures takes from the control group are then compared to those
in the experimental group to determine if the treatment had an
effect.
 The experimental group: made up of individuals who are
randomly assigned to the group and then receive the treatment.
The scores of these participants are compared to those in the
control group to determine if the treatment had an effect.
 For example:
 Hypothesis: an aspirin a day reduces the
likelihood of a heart attack.
 Independent variable: Aspirin
 Dependent Variable: the number of heart
attacks.
 The experimental group: would take an
aspirin each day
 The control group: would take a placebo,
such as a sugar pill, that resembles an aspirin
but has none of the effects attributed to aspirin.
 After a few months or years of pill-taking, the
number of heart attacks would be measured as
the dependent variable. If the aspirin-takers
(experimental group) had a significantly smaller
number of heart attacks than the placebo-
takers (control group), then the research
hypothesis (aspirin-taking reduces heart
5. CORRELATION:
 Correlation studies are used to look for
relationships between variables. There are
three possible results of a co relational study: a
positive correlation, a negative correlation, and
no correlation. The correlation coefficient is a
measure of correlation strength and can range
from –1.00 to +1.00.

 Positive Correlations: Both variables increase

or decrease at the same time. A correlation
coefficient close to +1.00 indicates a strong
positive correlation.
 Negative Correlations: Indicates that as the
amount of one variable increases, the other
decreases (and vice versa). A correlation
coefficient close to -1.00 indicates a strong
negative correlation.