NETWORKS

NETWORKING

• Networking refers to the practice of connecting computers and other devices to share
resources and information. In the digital world, a network is a collection of devices (such
as computers, servers, smartphones, printers, etc.) that are linked together to enable
communication and data exchange. Networking allows devices to communicate with each
other, share data, resources, and access services, making it a fundamental component of
modern computing.
 IMPORTANCE OF NETWORKING IN
THE DIGITAL WORLD:
•Communication: Networking enables individuals, organizations, and machines to communicate
quickly and efficiently, regardless of their geographical location. This is essential for email, instant
messaging, video calls, and social media.

•Resource Sharing: Networking allows sharing of resources like printers, scanners, files, and internet
connections, optimizing the use of physical and digital assets.

•Data Transfer: Large volumes of data can be transferred across a network, enabling activities such as
online banking, e-commerce, and video streaming.

•Global Connectivity: The rise of networking has made the Internet a global system, connecting
billions of devices worldwide, enabling services like cloud computing, online education, and remote
work.

•Collaboration: Networking tools such as shared drives, project management software, and
collaborative platforms enable people and organizations to work together seamlessly, regardless of
their locations.
TYPES OF NETWORKS

There are various types of networks based on the geographical

area they cover, their use cases, and their technologies. The
primary types are:
• Personal Area Network (PAN)
• Local Area Network (LAN)
• Metropolitan Area network (MAN)
• Wide Area Network (WAN)
PERSONAL AREA NETWORK (PAN)

Definition: A PAN is a small network that is typically used for personal

devices within a limited area, such as a room or a person’s workspace.
Examples:
• Bluetooth connections between a smartphone and wireless headphones.
• A Wi-Fi network for personal devices in a home.
• Connecting a laptop, smartphone, and smartwatch to sync data.

Characteristics:
• Small in scale, usually covering an area of about 10 meters (33 feet) or less.
• Used for connecting personal devices like phones, tablets, laptops, and wearables.
 LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN)

Definition: A LAN connects devices in a relatively small, localized area, such as a home, office, or campus.

Examples:
• A network of computers within an office building sharing resources like files and printers
• A school network where students and teachers access shared resources and the internet

Characteristics:
• Covers a relatively small area (a few hundred meters to a few kilometers).
• High data transfer rates (up to gigabits per second).
• LANs can be wired (Ethernet cables) or wireless (Wi-Fi).
METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK (MAN)

Definition: A MAN covers a larger geographical area than a LAN but is smaller than a WAN. It
typically spans a city or large campus.

Examples:
•A city-wide network that connects local businesses, government offices, and schools.
•A university network connecting multiple campuses in a city.

Characteristics:
•Covers areas from several kilometers to tens of kilometers.
•Often used by large organizations or municipalities.
•Offers high-speed data transfer, although it can be more complex and costly to set up than LANs.
WIDE AREA NETWORK (WAN)

•Definition: A WAN spans a very large geographical area, such as a country or even the entire
globe. It connects multiple LANs and MANs and supports internet access.

Examples:
•The Internet is the largest and most well-known WAN.
•A corporate network connecting offices in different cities or countries.

Characteristics:
•Can cover areas ranging from hundreds of kilometers to globally.
•Slower data transfer rates compared to LANs (although high-speed technologies like fiber-optics are used).
•Often involves leased lines or public internet infrastructure.
NETWORK TOPOLOGIES

• A network topology is essentially the layout or structure

that determines how devices are connected and how data is
transmitted in the network. It can be either physical (the
actual physical layout of devices) or logical (the logical path
data takes between devices). The choice of topology depends
on factors such as the network’s size, performance
requirements, budget, and scalability.
TYPES OF TOPOLOGIES
•Star Topology
•Bus Topology
•Ring Topology
•Mesh Topology
•Tree Topology
•Hybrid
Topology
STAR TOPOLOGY
Definition: In star topology, each device on the network is connected to a central device
(usually a hub, switch, or router). The central device acts as a mediator for data communication.

Structure: Devices are arranged in a star-like shape with a central node (hub/switch).

Data Flow: Data from one device is sent to the central device, which then routes it to the
destination device.

Advantages:
• Easy to Install and Manage: Because devices are connected to a central node, it’s easy to add or
remove devices without affecting the rest of the network.
• Isolated Failures: If one device fails, it doesn't affect the others. Only the failed device is impacted.
• Scalability: Easy to expand by adding more devices connected to the central hub.
Disadvantages:
• Single Point of Failure: If the central hub or switch fails, the entire network becomes inoperable.
• Costly: Requires more cabling and central hardware (e.g., switches or hubs).
• Performance Issues: The central device can become a bottleneck if there is a lot of traffic.
Best for:
• Small to medium-sized networks where ease of management and fault isolation are important.
• Home networks, offices, and corporate environments.
BUS TOPOLOGY
Definition: In bus topology, all devices are connected to a single central cable (the "bus"). The
bus transmits data between devices, and each device listens for the data meant for it.
Structure: A single central communication line (the bus) connects all devices.
Data Flow: Data travels along the bus and is received by all devices. Each device checks the data
to see if it is intended for it.
Advantages:
• Simple to Implement: It’s one of the most basic topologies and easy to set up.
• Cost-Effective: Less cable is required than in star topology, making it cheaper.
• Efficient for Small Networks: Good for smaller networks where there are fewer devices.
Disadvantages:
• Data Collision: As all devices share the same bus, data collisions can occur, leading to performance
degradation, especially in larger networks.
• Difficult to Troubleshoot: Finding the source of a failure can be challenging, as the entire network relies on
the bus.
• Limited Scalability: Adding devices or extending the network can cause performance problems and
complexity.
• Single Point of Failure: If the central bus cable breaks, the whole network goes down.
Best for:
• Small networks or temporary setups where cost is a major consideration.
RING TOPOLOGY
Definition: In ring topology, devices are connected in a circular fashion, and each device is connected to
exactly two other devices (its neighbors). Data travels in one direction (or sometimes both) around the ring
until it reaches its destination.
Structure: Devices form a closed loop.
Data Flow: Data travels in one direction or, in some cases, both directions (in a "dual ring" topology)
through the ring until it reaches the intended device.
Advantages:
• Data Transmission Speed: The data travels in one direction, reducing the chance of collisions and improving the flow of
traffic.
• Equal Access for All Devices: All devices in the ring have equal access to the network.
• Simple to Install and Set Up: Easy to configure with predictable performance.
Disadvantages:
• Single Point of Failure: If one device or connection breaks, the whole network can fail unless a secondary path is
available (dual ring).
• Performance Decreases with More Devices: As the number of devices grows, the performance can degrade because
the data has to pass through more devices.
• Difficult to Troubleshoot: Identifying and fixing problems in a ring network can be challenging due to the circular
nature.

Best for:
• Networks requiring high data integrity and security where the flow of data in a predictable, controlled manner is
important.
MESH TOPOLOGY
Definition: In mesh topology, each device is connected directly to every other device in the
network. This creates a network where multiple paths exist for data to travel between devices.
Structure: Devices are connected to all other devices (full mesh) or a subset of them (partial
mesh).
Data Flow: Data can take multiple paths to reach its destination, allowing for redundancy and fault
tolerance.
Advantages:
• High Fault Tolerance: Since multiple paths exist, if one link fails, data can take an alternative route.
• No Data Collisions: The data paths are dedicated, so there’s no contention or collision of data.
• Redundancy: Provides robust backup systems, increasing network reliability.
Disadvantages:
• Costly: Requires a lot of cabling and network devices, making it expensive to set up and maintain.
• Complex to Install: Wiring and managing a full mesh network can become cumbersome, especially for large
networks.
• Difficult to Scale: Adding new devices requires additional connections to every existing device.
Best for:
Critical applications where network reliability and uptime are paramount.
 TREE TOPOLOGY
Definition: Tree topology is a hybrid topology that combines characteristics of both star and bus
topologies. It uses a hierarchical structure with a central node, with each branch acting as a separate
star network.
Structure: Devices are arranged in a tree-like fashion, where each "branch" is a star network
connected to a central root node.
Data Flow: Data can travel from the root node to its branches and further to devices in each branch.
Advantages:
• Scalable: Easy to add more devices by extending branches.
• Hierarchical Structure: Facilitates management by organizing devices in tiers or levels.
• Good Fault Isolation: A failure in one branch doesn’t affect the rest of the network.
Disadvantages:
• Single Point of Failure: If the central node fails, the entire network may be impacted.
• Complex to Maintain: Can be difficult to manage if the network is large or complex.
• Costly: Requires more cabling than star or bus topologies.
Best for:
• Large networks like corporate environments, campuses, or data centers.
• Scalable applications where devices need to be grouped hierarchically.
HYBRID TOPOLOGY
Definition: A hybrid topology combines two or more different topologies in a single network. It can
take elements from star, mesh, bus, or ring topologies, depending on the network's requirements.
Structure: It is a combination of different topologies used in a way that meets specific business or
organizational needs.
Data Flow: The data follows the routing principles defined by the combined topologies.
Advantages:
• Flexibility: It can be tailored to meet specific needs of a network, leveraging the strengths of multiple topologies.
• Scalability: Can grow and adapt as needed without significant redesign.
• Optimal Use of Resources: Combines the best aspects of multiple topologies.
Disadvantages:
• Complex to Set Up: The design and installation of a hybrid topology can be complicated and require significant
planning.
• Costly: Can be more expensive to implement and manage due to the complexity of the design.
Best for:
• Large organizations with complex networking needs.
• Multi-building campuses or corporate environments where a combination of star, bus, or mesh topologies is
needed.
KEY CONSIDERATIONS FOR OPTIMAL
PERFORMANCE
When selecting a topology, consider factors like:
• Scalability: If the network needs to grow, star or tree topologies may be ideal.
• Cost: Bus and ring topologies are generally more cost-effective than mesh topologies.
• Fault Tolerance: For high reliability, mesh or hybrid topologies are preferred.
• Ease of Installation: Star and bus topologies are simpler to install and manage.
• Data Flow and Performance: For high-speed and low-latency communication, mesh
or ring topologies may be necessary.
By understanding these factors, network administrators can select the best topology for
their specific network's needs, ensuring it is efficient, reliable, and future-proof.
BASIC NETWORKING DEVICES

In any network, various devices play crucial roles in enabling

communication, managing traffic, and ensuring data flows smoothly.
• Switch
• Router
• Modem
• Access Point
• Hub
• Bridge
SWITCH
Function:
A switch connects devices within the same network
(LAN). It uses MAC addresses to forward data only
to the specific device it’s intended for, making it
more efficient than older devices like hubs. It
operates on Data Link Layer i.e. Layer 2.

Example:
Office Network: In an office, a switch connects
multiple computers, printers, and servers, allowing
them to communicate with each other and share
resources. For instance, when you print a document,
the data travels from your computer to the printer
via the switch.
 ROUTER

Function:
A router is a device that connects different
networks, such as a local area network (LAN)
to the internet (wide area network or WAN). It
directs data packets between networks based
on their IP addresses, determining the most
efficient path. It operates on Network
Layer(Layer 3)

Example:
Home Router: In your home, the router
connects all your devices (laptops,
smartphones, smart TVs) to the internet via
your Internet Service Provider (ISP). It also
MODEM

Function:
A modem (modulator-demodulator)
converts digital data from a computer or
router into analog signals for
transmission over phone lines or cable
and vice versa for incoming data. It
operates on Physical Layer (Layer 1) and
Data Link Layer (Layer 2).

Real-Life Example:
Cable Internet: At home, the modem
provided by your ISP connects to the
ACCESS POINT
Function:
An access point allows wireless devices
to connect to a wired network using Wi-
Fi. It acts as a bridge between the wired
and wireless portions of the network. It
operates on Data Link Layer (Layer 2).

Example:
Public Wi-Fi: In cafes or airports, the
access point connects multiple
customers' smartphones and laptops to
the internet through a central wired
connection. The access point ensures
BRIDGE
Function:
A bridge connects two or more network
segments, improving network
performance by filtering traffic and
reducing congestion between segments.
It operates on Data Link Layer (Layer 2).

Example:
Wi-Fi Extender: Imagine a large
building with several floors. A bridge can
connect the wired network on each floor,
allowing data to flow efficiently and
reducing the network load, much like a
REPEATER

Function:
A repeater extends the range of a
network by amplifying weak signals and
retransmitting them, ensuring data can
travel longer distances without
degradation.

Example:
Wi-Fi Range Extender: In large homes
or office buildings, a repeater can be
used to boost a Wi-Fi signal, making sure
that even the farthest rooms or areas
IP ADDRESS

An IP address (Internet Protocol address) is a unique numerical

identifier assigned to every device connected to a network that
uses the Internet Protocol for communication. It enables devices
to identify and communicate with each other over a network,
such as the internet or a local area network (LAN).
There are two main versions of IP addresses:
• IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4)
• IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6)
IPV4 VS. IPV6 ADDRESS FORMATS
IPv4 Address
Format:
IPv4 addresses consist of 32 bits divided into four octets (8-bit
segments), typically written in dotted decimal notation.
Example: 192.168.1.1

Address Space:
IPv4 provides around 4.3 billion unique addresses (2^32), which is
insufficient due to the growth of the internet.

IPv4 Structure:
32 bits (4 octets): e.g., 192.168.1.1
Each octet is represented by a decimal number between 0 and 255.
IPv6 Address
Format:
IPv6 addresses use 128 bits and are written in hexadecimal (base 16), separated
by colons.
Example: 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334

Address Space:
IPv6 allows for an immense number of addresses — about (3.4 × 10^38 or
340,282,366,920,938,463,463,374,607,431,768,211,456) unique addresses, making
it virtually unlimited for the foreseeable future.

IPv6 Structure:
128 bits (8 groups of 16-bit hexadecimal numbers): e.g.,
2001:0db8:85a3::8a2e:0370:7334
Zeroes in the address can be shortened using "::" (but can only be used once in an
address).

•
 STRUCTURE OF AN IP ADDRESS
NETWORK PORTION VS HOST
PORTION
An IP address is typically divided into two parts:
Network Portion:
• The part of the IP address that identifies the network to which the device
belongs.
• The network portion is used by routers to forward data packets to the
correct network.

Host Portion:
• The part of the IP address that identifies a specific device (host) within
that network.
• This portion is unique to each device within the network.
For example, in the IPv4 address 192.168.1.10:

Network Portion: 192.168.1 (identifies the network)

Host Portion: 10 (identifies the specific device within that network)
PRIVATE VS. PUBLIC IP ADDRESSES
Public IP Address
Definition: A public IP address is an IP address that is globally
unique and can be accessed over the internet. It is assigned by an
Internet Service Provider (ISP) and is used to identify a device on
the global internet.
Example: 8.8.8.8 (Google's public DNS server).
Uses:
• Assigned to web servers, email servers, and any device that needs to be
directly accessible from the internet.
• Public IPs are routable on the internet and are used by network gateways
like routers to route traffic between devices on the internet.

•
Private IP Address
Definition: A private IP address is used within a local network and cannot be directly
accessed from the internet. These addresses are defined in specific address ranges and are not
routable globally.

Example: 192.168.1.10, 10.0.0.1, 172.16.0.1

Uses:
• Used for devices within a home, office, or enterprise network (like printers, laptops,
smartphones).
• Routers typically use Network Address Translation (NAT) to map private IP addresses to a
single public IP address when accessing the internet .
Private IP Address Ranges (according to IPv4):
• 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255 (Class A)
• 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255 (Class B)
• 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255 (Class C)
SUBNETTING
Subnetting is the practice of dividing a larger network into smaller, more
manageable subnets. This is done to improve network performance,
enhance security, and make better use of IP address space. Subnet masks
help us determine how to divide the IP address into the network portion
and the host portion.
Application:
• Efficient Use of IP Addresses: Subnetting helps avoid wastage of IP addresses and
allows networks to be more scalable.
• Network Management: By segmenting a large network into subnets, network traffic
can be better managed, and devices within a subnet can communicate more
efficiently.
• Security: Subnetting allows for isolation of parts of a network, increasing security.
SUBNETTING
Working Principle:

• A subnet mask is used to determine which portion of an IP address refers to the network
and which part refers to the host.

• A subnet mask is typically written in dotted decimal notation (e.g., 255.255.255.0 for a
Class C subnet).

• Example:
With IP Address 192.168.1.10 and Subnet Mask 255.255.255.0, the network portion is
192.168.1, and the host portion is 10.
Network portion: The first 3 octets (192.168.1) represent the network that the device
belongs to.
Host portion: The last octet (10) identifies a specific device within the network.
IP Address: 192.168.1.10
Binary: 11000000.10101000.00000001.00001010
Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0
Binary: 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
SUBNETTING

The Role of Subnetting in Efficient Network Organization

By using subnetting, you can divide your IP address space into smaller subnets.
For example, if you need a network for different departments in an office, you
could use subnetting to create a separate network for each department (e.g.,
Sales, HR, IT), even though they all share the same general IP range.

Analogy
Think of an IP address as a home address. The street name (the network
portion) is the same for everyone in the same neighborhood. The house
number (the host portion) is what makes each house (device) unique on that
street.
Number of Subnets = 2n (Where n is the number of bits
borrowed from the host portion).
Number of Usable Hosts = 2h - 2 (Where h is the number of
host bits, subtracting 2 for network and broadcast addresses).
CIDR (CLASSLESS INTER-DOMAIN
ROUTING)

CIDR is a more flexible way of allocating IP addresses and routing internet traffic, allowing for efficient use of IP address
space without being limited by the traditional class-based network structure (Class A, B, C).
CIDR notation uses a slash ("/") followed by the number of bits used for the network portion.
Example: 192.168.1.0/24
This means the first 24 bits are used for the network portion, and the remaining 8 bits are for the host portion.

Why CIDR?
• CIDR allows more efficient IP address allocation by eliminating the rigid class boundaries (Class A, B, C) and
enabling variable-length subnet masking (VLSM).
• It allows networks to grow or shrink as needed, and it provides more granular control over how IP addresses are
distributed across an organization or across the internet.
Example:
•Atraditional Class C network with a subnet mask of 255.255.255.0 could be written as 192.168.1.0/24 in CIDR
notation.
•A smaller subnet with only 30 usable IP addresses might use 255.255.255.252 or /30
DEFAULT GATEWAY
• The default gateway is a network device (typically a router)
that acts as an access point or intermediary for devices
within a local network (such as a home or office network) to
communicate with devices outside their network, including
those on the internet.
• The default gateway is used when a device needs to communicate
with an IP address that is outside of its own subnet.
• Without a default gateway, devices can only communicate within their
own subnet.
EXAMPLE 1

• Design a small computer network for home, assign IP address

for computer, mobile phone and an IP camera.
• Use private IP addresses for the internal network, e.g., 192.168.1.0
• Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0
• Network Design
Network Address: 192.168.1.0
Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0
Broadcast Address: 192.168.1.255
Valid Host IP Range: 192.168.1.1 to 192.168.1.254
• Assigned Devices and IP Addresses:
Router: 192.168.1.1 (usually assigned to the router as the default
gateway)
Computer: 192.168.1.2
Mobile Phone: 192.168.1.3
IP Camera: 192.168.1.4
EXAMPLE 2

• Design two sub networks for home network where the

maximum devices that can be connected to each subnet is 6.
One subnet should have one laptop and an ipad, while the
other subnet includes a desktop and an IP camera. Assign
unique IP addresses to all the devices. Provide the IP address
and subnet mask for all devices. Also provide network and
broadcast address.
Subnet 1:
• Network Address: 192.168.1.0/29
• IP Range: 192.168.1.1 to 192.168.1.6 (usable IPs)
• Broadcast Address: 192.168.1.7
• Devices in Subnet 1:
• Laptop: IP: 192.168.1.2, Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.248
• iPad: IP: 192.168.1.3, Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.248
Subnet 2:
• Network Address: 192.168.1.8/29
• IP Range: 192.168.1.9 to 192.168.1.14 (usable IPs)
• Broadcast Address: 192.168.1.15
Devices in Subnet 2:
• Desktop: IP: 192.168.1.10, Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.248
• IP Camera: IP: 192.168.1.11, Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.248
•
Subnet Address Type IP Address Details
Subnet 1 Network Address 192.168.1.0 Reserved for subnet ID
Default Gateway 192.168.1.1 Router for subnet 1
Device 1 192.168.1.2 Laptop
Device 2 192.168.1.3 iPad
Broadcast Address 192.168.1.7 Reserved for
broadcasting
Subnet 2 Network Address 192.168.1.8 Reserved for subnet ID
Default Gateway 192.168.1.9 Router for subnet 2
Device 1 192.168.1.10 Desktop
Device 2 192.168.1.11 IP camera
Device 3 192.168.1.12 Smart TV
Device 4 192.168.1.13 Gaming Console
Device 5 192.168.1.14 Printer
Broadcast Address 192.168.1.15 Reserved for
Broadcasting
OSI MODEL
Definition:
The OSI (Open Systems
Interconnection) model is a
conceptual framework used to
understand network interactions
in seven layers.

Purpose:
It standardizes the functions of a
network into seven layers,
making it easier to troubleshoot,
design, and understand network
systems.
Physical Layer (Layer 1):
The electrical signals (or light pulses in fiber) travel across the physical medium (cables,
Wi-Fi, etc.). Think of the wires connecting your computer to the router, or the radio waves of
your Wi-Fi signal.

Data Link Layer (Layer 2):

The data is packaged into frames and sent to the correct MAC address on the local
network.
Your computer sends data through Ethernet cables (or wireless) to the correct device on the
local network (router).

Network Layer (Layer 3):

The router looks at the IP address and decides the best path for the data to reach the
server hosting the website. When you send data from your computer to a remote server, the
router decides where to send it based on the destination IP address. If you're on a home
network, the router sends it to your ISP and beyond to the server hosting the site.
Transport Layer (Layer 4):
What happens: The Transport Layer ensures that the data reaches its destination reliably.
It uses TCP for reliable communication or UDP for faster, less reliable transmission. Real-
life example: You might be downloading a file from the website. TCP guarantees that
your file arrives correctly and reassembles the data in the correct order.

Session Layer (Layer 5):

What happens: A session is established between the client (your computer) and the
server. It maintains the state of the connection during the data exchange. Real-life
example: If you're logging into a website, the session layer ensures your login credentials
are verified and keeps you logged in as you navigate different pages.

Presentation Layer (Layer 6):

What happens: This layer translates the data into a format that the application layer can
understand, often handling encryption, compression, or data formatting. Real-life
example: If you're visiting a secure website (https://), the Presentation Layer is responsible
for SSL/TLS encryption that ensures the data sent between your browser and the server
is secure.

Application Layer (Layer 7):

What happens: The user interacts directly with the application, such as a web browser,
The data is transmitted step-by-step using segmentation, packetization, and
routing:
Segmentation (at the Transport Layer):
Your device wants to send a large file or message. This file is too large to send all at once,
so the Transport Layer (TCP) breaks it into smaller segments.

Packetization (at the Network Layer):

Each segment is handed down to the Network Layer (IP), which divides it into packets.
Each packet gets its own header with the source and destination IP addresses.

Routing (via Routers):

The packets are sent through the network. Each packet is forwarded by routers along the
best path toward the destination. Routers use their routing tables and routing protocols to
decide the next hop for each packet.

Reassembly (at the Destination):

Once the packets arrive at the destination, they are reassembled into the original
segments by the Transport Layer (e.g., TCP).
If some packets were lost or corrupted, the Transport Layer can request the retransmission
of those specific packets.

Final Delivery: