Introduction to Computer Networks

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER
NETWORKS
Introduction to Computer Networks

Computer Networks
Computer network
connects two or more
autonomous computers.

The computers can be

geographically located
anywhere.
Introduction to Computer Networks

LAN, MAN & WAN

Network in small geographical Area (Room, Building
or a Campus) is called LAN (Local Area Network)

Network in a City is call MAN (Metropolitan Area

Network)

Network spread geographically (Country or across

Globe) is called WAN (Wide Area Network)
Introduction to Computer Networks

Applications of Networks
Resource Sharing
Hardware (computing resources, disks, printers)
Software (application software)
Information Sharing
Easy accessibility from anywhere (files, databases)
Search Capability (WWW)
Communication
Email
Message broadcast
Remote computing
Distributed processing (GRID Computing)
Introduction to Computer Networks

Network Topology
The network topology
defines the way in
which computers,
printers, and other
devices are connected.
A network topology
describes the layout of
the wire and devices as
well as the paths used
by data transmissions.
Introduction to Computer Networks

Bus Topology
Commonly referred to
as a linear bus, all the
devices on a bus
topology are connected
by one single cable.
Introduction to Computer Networks

Star & Tree Topology

The star topology is the most
commonly used architecture in
Ethernet LANs.
When installed, the star
topology resembles spokes in
a bicycle wheel.
Larger networks use the
extended star topology also
called tree topology. When
used with network devices that
filter frames or packets, like
bridges, switches, and routers,
this topology significantly
reduces the traffic on the wires
by sending packets only to the
wires of the destination host.
Introduction to Computer Networks

Ring Topology
A frame travels around the ring,
stopping at each node. If a node
wants to transmit data, it adds the
data as well as the destination
address to the frame.
The frame then continues around
the ring until it finds the
destination node, which takes the
data out of the frame.
Single ring – All the devices on
the network share a single cable
Dual ring – The dual ring topology
allows data to be sent in both
directions.
Introduction to Computer Networks

Mesh Topology
The mesh topology
connects all devices
(nodes) to each other
for redundancy and
fault tolerance.
It is used in WANs to
interconnect LANs and
for mission critical
networks like those
used by banks and
financial institutions.
Implementing the mesh
topology is expensive
and difficult.
Introduction to Computer Networks

Network Components
Physical Media
Interconnecting Devices
Computers
Networking Software
Applications
Introduction to Computer Networks

Networking Media
Networking media can
be defined simply as
the means by which
signals (data) are sent
from one computer to
another (either by cable
or wireless means).
Introduction to Computer Networks

Networking Devices
HUB, Switches, Routers,
Wireless Access Points,
Modems etc.
Introduction to Computer Networks

Computers: Clients and Servers

In a client/server
network arrangement,
network services are
located in a dedicated
computer whose only
function is to respond
to the requests of
clients.

The server contains the

file, print, application,
security, and other
services in a central
computer that is
continuously available
to respond to client
requests.
Introduction to Computer Networks

Networking Protocol: TCP/IP

Introduction to Computer Networks

Applications
E-mail
Searchable Data (Web Sites)
E-Commerce
News Groups
Internet Telephony (VoIP)
Video Conferencing
Chat Groups
Instant Messengers
Internet Radio
 Chapter 2
Basic Concepts
• Line Configuration
• Topology
• Transmission Mode
• Categories of Networks
• Internetworks

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Figure 2-1

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Figure 2-2

Point-to-Point Line Configuration

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Figure 2-2-continued

Point-to-Point Line Configuration

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Figure 2-2-continued

Point-to-Point Line Configuration

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Figure 2-3

Multipoint Line Configuration

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Figure 2-4

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Figure 2-5

Mesh Topology

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Figure 2-6
Star Topology

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Figure 2-7

Tree Topology

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Figure 2-8

Bus Topology

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Figure 2-9

Ring Topology

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Figure 2-10

Hybrid Topology

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Packet Switching Vs Circuit Switching
Packet-switched and circuit-switched networks use
two different technologies for sending messages
and data from one point to another.

Each have their advantages and disadvantages

depending on what you are trying to do.
Packet Switching

In packet-based networks, the message
gets broken into small data packets.
These packets are sent out from the
computer and they travel around the
network seeking out the most efficient
route to travel as circuits become
available. This does not necessarily
mean that they seek out the shortest
route.

Each packet may go a different route
from the others.
 Packet Switching

Each packet is sent with a ‘header address’. This tells it
where its final destination is, so it knows where to go.

The header address also describes the sequence for
reassembly at the destination computer so that the packets
are put back into the correct order.

One packet also contains details of how many packets shou
be arriving so that the recipient computer knows if one
packet has failed to turn up.

If a packet fails to arrive, the recipient computer sends a
message back to the computer which originally sent the dat
asking for the missing packet to be resent.
Packet Switching
Packet Switching
• Advantages:
» Security
» Bandwidth used to full potential
» Devices of different speeds can communicate
» Not affected by line failure (rediverts signal)
» Availability – do not have to wait for a direct
connection to become available
» During a crisis or disaster, when the public
telephone network might stop working, e-mails
and texts can still be sent via packet switching
Packet Switching

Disadvantages
» Under heavy use there can be a delay
» Data packets can get lost or become
corrupted
» Protocols are needed for a reliable transfer
» Not so good for some types data streams
e.g real-time video streams can lose frames
due to the way packets arrive out of
sequence.
Circuit Switching

Circuit switching was designed in
1878 in order to send telephone
calls down a dedicated channel.
This channel remained open and
in use throughout the whole call
and could not be used by any
other data or phone calls.
Circuit Switching

There are three phases in circuit
switching:
• Establish
• Transfer
• Disconnect

The telephone message is sent in
one go, it is not broken up. The
message arrives in the same order
that it was originally sent.
 Circuit Switching

In modern circuit-switched networks, electronic signals
pass through several switches before a connection is
established.

During a call, no other network traffic can use those
switches.

The resources remain dedicated to the circuit during the
entire data transfer and the entire message follows the
same path.

Circuit switching can be analogue or digital
Circuit Switching

With the expanded use of the Internet for voice and
video, analysts predict a gradual shift away from
circuit-switched networks.

A circuit-switched network is excellent for data that
needs a constant link from end-to-end. For example
real-time video.
Circuit Switching

Circuit Switching
• Advantages:
» Circuit is dedicated to the call – no interference,
no sharing
» Guaranteed the full bandwidth for the duration
of the call
» Guaranteed Quality of Service
Circuit Switching
Disadvantages:
» Inefficient – the equipment may be unused for a
lot of the call, if no data is being sent, the
dedicated line still remains open
» Takes a relatively long time to set up the circuit
» During a crisis or disaster, the network may
become unstable or unavailable.
» It was primarily developed for voice traffic
rather than data traffic.
Packet Vs Circuit Switching

It is easier to double the capacity of a packet

switched network than a circuit network –
a circuit network is heavily dependent on
the number of channel available.
Packet Vs Circuit Switching

It is cheaper to expand a packet switching system.

Circuit-switched technologies, which take four times as
long to double their performance/cost, force ISPs to buy
that many more boxes to keep up. This is why everyone i
looking for ways to get Internet traffic off the telephone
network. The alternative of building up the telephone
network to satisfy the demand growth is economically ou
of the question.
Packet Vs Circuit Switching

The battle between circuit and packet technologies has
been around a long time, and it is starting to be like the
old story of the tortoise and the hare. In this case, the
hare is circuit switching—fast, reliable and smart. The
hare starts out fast and keeps a steady pace, while the
tortoise starts slow but manages to double his speed
every 100 meters.

If the race is longer than 2 km, the power of
compounding favours the tortoise.
Packet Switching
Difference between circuit switching and packet
switching:
• Packet Switching
» Message is broken up into segments (packets).
» Each packet carries the identification of the intended
recipient, data used to assist in data correction and the
position of the packet in the sequence.
» Each packet is treated individually by the switching
centre and may be sent to the destination by a totally
different route to all the others.
Figure 2-11

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Figure 2-12

Simplex

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Figure 2-13

Half-Duplex

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Figure 2-14

Full-Duplex

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Figure 2-15

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Figure 2-16
Local Area Network

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Figure 2-16-continued
Local Area Network

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Figure 2-17
Metropolitan Area Network

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Figure 2-18
Wide Area Network

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Figure 2-19
Internetwork
(Internet)

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 The OSI Model
and
TCP/IP
Protocol Suite
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 CONTENTS
• THE OSI MODEL
• LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL
• TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
• ADDRESSING
• TCP/IP VERSIONS

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 THE
OSI
MODEL

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 ISO is the organization.
OSI is the model.

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 OSI
Model

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 OSI layers

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 Headers are added
to the data at layers
6, 5, 4, 3, and 2.
Trailers are usually
added only at layer 2.

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 An exchange using the OSI model

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 LAYERS
IN
THE
OSI
MODEL

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 Physical Layer

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 Data Link Layer

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 Node-to-node delivery

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 Network Layer

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 End-to-end delivery

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 Transport Layer

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 Reliable end-to-end delivery of a message

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 Session Layer

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 Presentation Layer

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 Application Layer

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 Summary of layers

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 TCP/IP
PROTOCOL
SUITE

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 TCP/IP and OSI model

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 ADDRESSING

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 Addresses in TCP/IP

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 Relation-
ship
of
layers
and
addresses
in TCP/IP

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 Physical addresses

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 IP addresses

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 Port addresses

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 TCP/IP
VERSIONS

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 Versions:
• Version 4 (current)
• Version 5
• Version 6 (future)

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 Chapter 7
Transmission Media

7.85 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Figure 7.1 Transmission medium and physical layer

7.86
 Figure 7.2 Classes of transmission media

7.87
 7-1 GUIDED MEDIA

Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit

from one device to another, include twisted-pair cable,
coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable.

Topics discussed in this section:

Twisted-Pair Cable
Coaxial Cable
Fiber-Optic Cable

7.88
 Figure 7.3 Twisted-pair cable

7.89
 Figure 7.4 UTP and STP cables

7.90
 Figure 7.5 UTP connector

7.91
 Figure 7.7 Coaxial cable

7.92
 Table 7.2 Categories of coaxial cables

7.93
 Figure 7.8 BNC connectors

7.94
 Figure 7.10 Fiber optics: Bending of light ray

7.95
 Figure 7.11 Optical fiber

7.96
 Figure 7.12 Propagation modes

7.97
 Figure 7.13 Modes

7.98
 Figure 7.14 Fiber construction

7.99
 Figure 7.15 Fiber-optic cable connectors

7.100
 7-2 UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS

Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves

without using a physical conductor. This type of
communication is often referred to as wireless
communication.

Topics discussed in this section:

Radio Waves
Microwaves
Infrared

7.101
 Figure 7.17 Electromagnetic spectrum for wireless communication

7.102
 Figure 7.18 Propagation methods

7.103
 Table 7.4 Bands

7.104
 Figure 7.19 Wireless transmission waves

7.105
 Note

Radio waves are used for multicast

communications, such as radio and
television, and paging systems. They
can penetrate through walls.
Highly regulated. Use omni directional
antennas

7.106
 Figure 7.20 Omnidirectional antenna

7.107
 Note

Microwaves are used for unicast

communication such as cellular
telephones, satellite networks,
and wireless LANs.
Higher frequency ranges cannot
penetrate walls.
Use directional antennas - point to point
line of sight communications.
7.108
 Figure 7.21 Unidirectional antennas

7.109
 Note

Infrared signals can be used for short-

range communication in a closed area
using line-of-sight propagation.

7.110
 Wireless Channels
 Are subject to a lot more errors than
guided media channels.
 Interference is one cause for errors, can
be circumvented with high SNR.
 The higher the SNR the less capacity is
available for transmission due to the
broadcast nature of the channel.
 Channel also subject to fading and no
coverage holes.

7.111
Figure 7-21
Radio Communication Band

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Figure 7-22
Propagation Types

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Figure 7-23, 24

VLF

LF

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Figure 7-25, 26

MF

HF

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Figure 7-27, 28
VHF

UHF

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Figure 7-29, 30

SHF

EHF

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Figure 7-31

Terrestrial Microwave

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Figure 7-32

Parabolic Dish Antenna

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Figure 7-33
Horn Antenna

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Figure 7-34
Satellite Communication

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Figure 7-35
Geosynchronous Orbit

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Figure 7-36
Cellular System

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Figure 7-37

Cellular Bands

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