Chapter one

Introduction

1
 1.1. Definition research
There are several definitions given for research by
different writers. Some of these definitions are the
following:
Research refers the application of the scientific method
in the study of problems. It is a systematic attempt to
obtain answers to questions about events through the
application of scientific procedures
Research is a scientific and systematic search for
pertinent information on a specific topic. Research is a
systematic inquiry aimed at providing information to
solve problems.
2
 cont…
It refers to the systematic method consisting of enunciating the

problem, formulating hypothesis, collecting facts or data,

analyzing the facts and reaching certain conclusions either in
the form of solution(s) towards the concerned problem or in
certain generalizations or some theoretical formulation.
One can easily pick the terms scientific and systematic from

the above definitions. Research is scientific because it is just a

search for knowledge through recognized methods of data
3
collection, analysis, and interpretation.
 Cont…
It is systematic because it uses some steps or procedures in

doing this. Generally, research is a systematic inquiry

designed to further widen our knowledge and understanding
of a subject.

4
 1.1.2. Traits of a researcher
 Reasoning power: the researcher must have capacity to solve problems deductively
and inductively.
 Originality: Have creative, imaginative, initiative and fertility of rational ideas.
 Memory: Have extensive, logical and ready command of facts.
 Alertness: Have quick, incisive and responsive observation, thought and feeling.
 Accuracy: Have precise, keen, regular, reliable observation, thought and feeling.
 Application: Have power of concentration, sustained attention, pertinent and well
regulated effort.
 Cooperation: Have the capacity for intellect, companionship, teamwork orientation
and leadership qualities.
 Moral attitude: Intellectual wholesome moral standards, ideals, influence, etc.
 Health: Have nervous stability, physique, vitality, endurance.
 Zeal: Have deep interest in craving for original creative work.
 Ethical
5
 Scholarship
 1.1.3. Characteristics of Research
 Research should be original and rigorous
 Research is directed toward the solution of a problem. The ultimate goal is to

find out or explain the causes of events and their effects.

 Research aims at the development of generalizations, principles or theories that

would be helpful in predicting future occurrences.

 Research is based upon observable experiences or empirical evidence. It is not

dogmatic but represents a scientific method of establishing knowledge.

 Research demands accurate observation and description. Researchers select or

device valid data gathering procedures. Nowadays, sophisticated electronic

devices like computer soft-wares are available to analyze data more efficiently
6
and accurately.
 1.1.4. General characteristics of Research:

 It begins with the question in the mind of the researcher

 It demands the identification of a problem-stated in a clear and

unambiguous terms
 It requires a plan of action
 It deals with the general objectives through the appropriate sub-objectives.
 It seeks direction through the appropriate hypothesis
 It deals with facts and their meanings
 It is a cyclic or a circular process.
7
 1.1.5. Purpose of Studying Research Methods

 Basically, the only way to become competent in research is by doing it. But

before research can be put in to practice, some skills must be acquired.

Acquiring research skills may be helpful for the following.

1. We may often need more information before making certain decisions;

2. We may also be called up on to do a research study for a higher-level

executives;

3. We may again need to buy research services from others, or at least evaluate
research done by others; or

4. We may find a career position as a research specialist in various areas of our

8
discipline.
 Cont…
 These all, in one way or another, require knowledge
of research methodologies. Generally, knowing what
to do in a specific situation is very important.
How is a research problem identified?
What procedures apply in pursuing the solution of the
specific problem?
How are the data to be collected, analyzed and
interpreted?
How can a satisfactory report be produced?
In the context of a specific research effort, all these
questions call for certain research skills. Generally,
the purpose of research is to discover answers to
questions through the application of scientific
9
procedures.
 Cont…
 Research being a scientific process applies every possible test to validate the

procedures employed, the data collected and the conclusions reached.

Emotionally held convictions or views have no place in scientific research

 Research involves the search for new knowledge. Advancing the frontiers of

knowledge is one of the primary purposes of research.

 Research is carefully reported and communicated.

 Research requires expertise

 Research involves gathering new data from primary or first hand sources or

using existing data for a new purpose.

10
 1.2. Importance of research in any field
 To generate accurate information for use in

decision making to solve economic, social,

environmental and managerial problems
 To generate theories and principles in the given

field and to increase the pace of knowledge

development in the field.
To reduce the risk of making wrong decisions by

reducing the uncertainty of decisions

11
 1.3. philosophical behind research

The philosophy common to all research methods and

techniques, although they may vary considerably from

one science to another, is usually given the name
scientific method. Scientific method is the pursuit of truth
as determined by logical considerations. Scientific method
is based on certain basic postulates which can be stated as
follows:
12
 cont…
 It relies on empirical evidence

 It utilizes relevant concepts

 It is committed to only objective considerations

 It presupposes ethical neutrality, i.e. it aims at nothing but

making only adequate and correct statements about population

objects
 It results in to probabilistic predictions

 Its methodology is made known to all concerned for critical

scrutiny and for use in testing the conclusions through replication

 It aims at formulating most general axioms or what can be
13
termed as scientific theories.
 1.3.1. Methods of Acquiring Knowledge

Authority: When knowledge is obtained from individuals who

are qualified producers of knowledge, the sources of knowledge
is said to be authority. E.g. knowledge about religion from priests
and sheiks, students get knowledge from students, etc…
Tradition: When we accept without questioning the traditions,
customs or culture of our forefathers or the society within which
we are living, the source of knowledge is said to be tradition. E.g.
it is not culturally accepted for males to wear females’ dresses.
14
 cont..
Experience: Our personal experience or our observation of
the experiences of other people is another fundamental
source of knowledge. We need no one to tell us about it.
E.g. we know rainy months in a year from our experience.

15
 cont…
Reasoning: Knowledge can be obtained based on some rules and forms
of logic.
a. Deductive reasoning: This is a thinking process in which one
will go from general statements to specific statements. It is a means
to evaluate the correctness of any given conclusion or idea by going
from the known to the unknown.
b. Inductive reasoning: In this case we need to go from specific to
general ideas. Here conclusions will be given by observing
particular instances (situations) and generalizing from them to the
16 whole phenomenon.
 cont…
Scientific Method: This integrates the most important
aspects of the inductive and deductive methods. Here
knowledge will be obtained through a step by step process
of collecting data, analyzing it and reaching at a
conclusion.

17
 1.4. Types of Research

 Recognition of the differences among the kinds of research is

important because the kind of research selected will determine

the conduct of research. The kind of research undertaken will
also influence mobilization of financial and public support for
that research.
 Research can be classified in different ways: descriptive and

inferential, basic and applied; qualitative and quantitative;

conceptual and empirical; etc…
18
 1.4.1. Descriptive and analytical research:

 Descriptive research: includes surveys and fact-

finding enquiries of different kinds. The major purpose

of descriptive research is description of the state of
affairs as it exists at present.
 Analytical research: It is on the other hand, the

researcher has to use facts or information already

available, and analyze these to make a critical
19 evaluation of the material.
 1.4.2. Basic and Applied Research
Applied Research (also called action research): The
purpose of applied research is to solve an immediate,
practical problem. It is oriented to a specific problem. It
has a practical problem solving emphasis. It emerges out
of a general problem which faces a society as whole.
Basic Research (also called pure or fundamental
research): It has a more general orientation, adding to
the existing body of knowledge in the discipline. It does
not necessarily provide results of immediate, practical use,
although such possibility is not ruled out. It may consist of
a research to develop and/or improve on theories,
techniques and measurements. It is aimed to solve
perplexing questions of theoretical nature that have little
direct impact on action, performance, or policy decisions.
20
 cont….
 Generally, basic and applied researches are differentiated

not by their complexity or value, but by their goals or

purposes. The primary purpose of basic research is the
extension of knowledge; the purpose of applied research
is the solution of an immediate practical problem.

21
 Quantitative and Qualitative Research

Quantitative Research: Research based on the

measurement of quantity or amount.

Qualitative Research: Research concerned with

qualitative phenomenon.

22
 Conceptual and Empirical Research

Conceptual Research: related to abstract ideas or theories.

Commonly used by philosophers and thinkers.

Empirical Research: relies on experience or observation alone. It

is data based research coming up with conclusions which are capable
of being verified by observation or experiment.

23
 1.5. Research process

The research process consists of a number of closely

related activities. These activities/steps overlap

continuously rather than following a strictly prescribed
sequence. However, the following order provides a
useful procedural guideline regarding the research
process.

24
 cont…
Formulating the Research Problem: The first step
in the research process is the choice of a suitable
problem for investigation. Research starts with a felt
difficulty. It takes place when there is a problematic
situation and a need to solve the problem. Sources of a
research problem are one’s professional experience,
theory, and professional literature. Initially the problem
may be stated in a broad general way and then
narrowed down to a specific research problem.
25
 cont…
Review the Literature: Once the problem is formulated, a
brief summary of it should be written down. At this juncture,
the researcher should undertake extensive literature survey
connected with the problem. The researcher may review two
types of literature-conceptual and empirical. Conceptual
literature is concerned with related concepts and theories.
Empirical literature is about studies made earlier which are
similar to the one proposed.
26
 cont…
Formulation of Working Hypothesis: After extensive
literature survey, researcher should state in clear terms
the working hypothesis or hypotheses. Hypothesis is
tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test
its logical or empirical consequences. Hypotheses
provide focal point for research. The role of hypothesis is
to guide the researcher by delimiting the area of
research and to keep him on the right truck.

27
 cont…
Preparing the Research Design (Including Sample Design): The
research problem having been formulated in clear cut terms, the
researcher will be required to prepare a research design. This is
stating the conceptual structures with in which research would be
conducted. In addition, the researcher must design the way of
selecting a sample or what is known as the sample design.

28
 Cont…
Collecting the Data (Execution): The researcher should select one of the methods of data
collection taking in to consideration the nature of investigation, objective and scope of the
inquiry, financial resources, available time, and the desired degree of accuracy.

Analysis of Data (Including Test of Hypothesis): After the data have been collected, the
researcher turns to the task of analyzing them. The analytical techniques have to be
appropriate and adequate. After analyzing the data, the researcher is in a position to test the
hypothesis, if any, he had formulated earlier.

Drawing Conclusions: This is making generalizations after the analyses have been made.
The conclusions must be based on the data and the analysis within the framework of the
research study. Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by
him/her.
29
 Chapter two: Problem Identification

 Research Problem

A research problem, in general, refers to some difficulty which a

researcher experiences in the context of either a practical or

theoretical situation that calls for an investigation. The individual or

the organization can be said to have the problem only if the

individual or the organization does not know what course of action is

best, i.e. the individual or the organization must be in doubt about

the solution.
30
 cont…
2.1. Sources of research problems

 The heart of any research problem is its correct

formulation. It is generally believed that the major

problem of science is that of asking the right

questions. All scientific problem stems from a

problem.

 Locating and analyzing a problem is a crucial stage

in research.
31
 Cont…
 In light of the varied purposes of research, the choice of a problem will depend

upon the level at which the research is done. A problem appropriate for a

graduate research would be different from that selected for a major grant

aimed at solving a defined development problem.

 The choice of a suitable problem is one of the most challenging tasks facing a

beginning researcher. A good research problem has the qualities of

significance, originality and feasibility. The researcher should evaluate the

proposed problem in the light of his competence, the availability of data, the

financial demands of the project, the limitations of time, and the possible
32
difficulties and social hazards.
 Background to the problem

In any research proposal, an introductory paragraph about the

problem is essential. This is a concise, descriptive, informative

and climate building introduction in a statement of the problem
being addressed. A logical and balanced statement helps to
describe a researcher’s vision of topical issues to be investigated.
 An author of a research proposal is expected to review previous

work to reveal what is known of the subject, gaps in knowledge,

current trends and what are perceived as flaws in current practice.

33
 Problems appropriately specified for applied research have the
following characteristics
 They are based on felt needs of individuals, groups and
societies.
 The causal relationships expressed in a problem statement
are relevant to the problem.
 Problem statements must suggest testable hypothetical
relationships that, when analyzed, yield relevant and not
trivial results.
 The problem and the research activity to resolve the problem
must be relevant and manageable within resource
restrictions.
 You must possess or acquire the necessary
skills, abilities and background knowledge to
34
 General Principles of Problem Formulation
 Be sure that the problem exists.

 Learn as much as possible about the problem to be solved.

 Employ the most feasible or most efficient method of solution or both. This

requires a judicious consideration of cost, time, manpower etc.

 Consider alternate or substitute formulations in case the original one is not

feasible.

 Formulate the problem systematically.

 Do not try to solve complex problems by simple formulations.

 Be aware of the possibility that the problem in formulation may influence the
35
phenomena being studied.
 Evaluation of a Research Problem
 Is the problem in line with my goal expectations and the expectation of others?

 Will the solution of this problem advance knowledge appreciably?

 Will the findings be of practical value?

 What will be the breadth of application in terms of years of applicability and range of

people that can benefit from the study?

 Will it duplicate the work that has been done or is being done adequately by someone

else?

 Do I possess or can I acquire the necessary skills, abilities and background

knowledge to study this problem.

 Do I have access to the tools, equipment, laboratory, subjects etc. necessary to

36
conduct the investigation?
 Cont…
 Do I have the time and money to complete it?

 Can I obtain adequate data?

 Does the problem meet the scope, significance and topical

requirement of the institution to which I will submit the

report?

37
 2.2. Criteria of research problems

The purpose of the investigator, in basic research, is to have

fuller knowledge or understanding of the subject under study.

This includes analytical and experimental activities which

seek to increase understanding of fundamental phenomena.

In basic research, the particular use of the knowledge is not

foreseen or identified at the beginning. Basic research is

usually done in a laboratory situation

38
 One of the most important criteria in selecting a
problem in basic research is

 The interest of the investigator or researcher. That investigator

may have to do the job because:

 His experience may be just right either experimentally or

theoretically;
 He may possess unique equipment or a group of colleagues

especially equipped to advise him;

 He may have an original idea and satisfactory equipment and

39 experience;
 Problems in Applied Research
They are based on felt needs of individuals, groups and societies.
ii. The causal relationships expressed in a problem statement are relevant to the
problem.
iii. Problem statements must suggest testable hypothetical relationships that,
when analyzed, yield relevant results.
iv. The problem and the research activity to resolve the problem must be relevant
and manageable within resource restrictions.
vi. You must possess or acquire the necessary skills, abilities and background
knowledge to study the problem.
vii. You must have access to the tools, equipment, laboratory, subjects necessary
to conduct the investigation.
viii. You must have the time and money to complete it.
ix. The problem must meet the scope, significance and topical requirement of the
40 organization to which you will submit the problem.
 Some useful questions to consider in the
formulation of a problem

Some useful questions to consider in the formulation of a problem:

 What current and previous studies have been done on the issues to be studied?

 What is the available information on the magnitude, nature and causes of the problem?

 What are the present gaps in knowledge?

 What makes the problem worth studying?

 Why has the problem not been tackled yet?

 What do you intend to do to fill the gaps or solve the problem?

 What is the conceptual framework on which your study will be based and what are the

tentative hypotheses to be employed in answering the questions?

 Does the solution to the problem have any practical or theoretical significance?

 What are the social, economic, political, technical and environmental considerations involved?

 Have you stated the assumptions related to the study?

41
 CHAPTER THREE:
LITERATURE REVIEWS
3.1. The Importance of Literature Review

In any research project it is essential to

understand what has already been done (if

anything) in the specific topic you have chosen
and what has been done in the wider subject area
of that topic.

42
 cont…
Reviewing literature can be time-consuming,
daunting and frustrating, but it is also rewarding.
Its functions are to:
 bring clarity and focus to your research problem;

 improve your methodology;

 broaden your knowledge; and

 contextualize your findings.

43
 Bring clarity and focus to your
research problem
The process of reviewing the literature

helps you to understand the subject

area better and thus helps you to
conceptualize your research problem
clearly and precisely.
It also helps you to understand the

44
relationship between your research
 Improve your
methodology
A literature review tells you if others

have used procedures and methods

similar to the ones that you are
proposing, which procedures and
methods have worked well for them,
and what problems they have faced

45
with them. Thus you will be better
 Broaden your knowledge base
in your research area
It ensures you to read widely around the

subject area in which you intend to conduct

your research study. As you are expected to
be an expert in your area of study, it helps
fulfill this expectation. It also helps you to
understand how the findings of your study
fit into the existing body of knowledge.
46
 Contextualize your
findings
 How do answers to your research questions compare

with what others have found? What contribution have

you been able to make in to the existing body of
knowledge? How are your findings different from those
of others? For you to be able to answer these
questions, you need to go back to your literature
review. It is important to place your findings in the
context of what is already known in your field of
enquiry.
47
 3.2. Purpose of a Literature
Review
 Apart from providing the answers to the earlier questions, the
review should also achieve the following:

 It should enable you to sharpen and focus your initial research

questions or even suggest new research questions;
  It should provide you with a wide and deep knowledge of the
theoretical, empirical and methodological issues within your chosen
research topic;
  It should provide a ‘bridge’ between your research questions and
your research findings;
  It should enable you to speak with authority on your research
topic and the wider subject area;
  It should enable you to compare your research methods,
theoretical framework and findings with work already done; and
  It should enable you to set the scope and range of your research
topic.
48
 cont…
 Quite clearly, the literature review is the pivotal
element of a research project. It connects your
planned work to previous work, it connects your
specific topic to the wider subject area, and it connects
your specific findings to the findings of others.
 It is very much an inclusive activity in the sense that,

if undertaken properly, you become a part of the

academic community who can speak and write with
confidence and authority on a specific research
problem .
49
 Types of Literature
Review
There are different types of literature review that
can be undertaken, depending on the purpose of
the research. The main types of literature review
are:
 An Evaluative Review;
 An Exploratory Review; and
 An Instrumental Review.

50
 Evaluative review
This type of literature review focuses on
providing a discussion of the literature in
terms of its coverage and contribution to
knowledge in a particular area. An apt
example of this type of review is meta-
analysis which provides a comprehensive
commentary on a very large number of

51
research projects focused on a specific topic.
 cont…
It is often used to directly compare
research findings from these projects
when the findings are directly
comparable - for example, in measuring
reliability coefficients, regression
coefficients, and also artificial
constructs defined in the same way but
applied in different projects. The field of
Econometrics is often typified by
literature reviews of this type.
52
 Exploratory review
 This is a literature review which is seeking to find out what

actually exists in the academic literature in terms of theory,

empirical evidence and research methods as they pertain
to a specific research topic and its related wider subject
area. It is also used to sharpen, focus and identify research
questions that remain unanswered in the specific topic. The
key to conducting a review of this type is to remain focused
on the field of study and not allow yourself to be taken into
other directions just because they may be interesting .

53
 cont…
It is not as important here to provide a comprehensive

review of the literature (as in meta-analysis) but it is

much more important to focus on the specific area of
the research topic. The review should be seen as being
informative to the researcher and providing him/her
with clearer ideas on the common theories, methods
and types of data analysis conducted on this topic. It is
also critical in this type of review that the literature is
properly cited and a proper bibliography is presented.
54
 Instrumental review
This is where the literature is used exclusively

as a source of information on how to conduct

some research on a highly specific research
problem. It is not designed to identify the state
of current knowledge in an area but to identify
the best way to carry out a research project
without reinventing the wheel and without
incurring unnecessary and avoidable costs.
55
 Some general points in
literature reviewing
Reviewing academic literature is not

the same as just reading it! You need to

think about the ideas, the re- search
methods, how the data was collected,
and how the findings have been
interpreted. This is what we mean by

56
Critical Reading!!
 cont..
 Here are some questions which you should keep in mind
when studying (not just reading) academic literature. For
any given piece of work:
  Is there a theoretical framework?
  If so, what is it and how does it fit into this topic?
  Does the work provide links to other work in the topic?
  Is there an empirical aspect to the work?
  If so, what is its basis?
  Does the work relate to a specific social group?
  Does it relate to a particular place?
  How applicable might it be outside the latter two?
  How old is the work?
  Is it still valid?
57
 cont…
 In addition to asking these questions, you also need to

summarize the literature review. This should be done in

the following terms: a) what does the previous
research tell us about this topic? b) What does it not
tell us? and c) What are the key weaknesses in terms
of theory, methods and data?
 This is the ‘end’ of your literature review and you now

have a platform from which to launch your own

research, interpret the findings and evaluate what you
58 have achieved in comparison with the literature.
 CHAPTER 4;
RESEARCH DESIGN
 Research design is the plan, structure and strategy of investigation

conceived so as to obtain answers to research questions and to control

variance.
 It includes an outline of everything the researcher will do including what

observations to make, how to make them, and what type of statistical

analysis to use.
 A research design, in a way, is a set of instructions to the researcher on

how to arrange the conditions for collection and analysis of data in a

manner that will achieve the objectives of the study. In a sense, it can be
59
taken as a control mechanism.
 Importance of research design
 The main purpose of a research design is to enable the researcher to

answer research questions as validly, objectively, accurately and

economically as possible.
 In more specific terms, a research design sets up the framework for

adequate tests of relationships among variables. In a sense, it indicates

what observations to make, how to make them, and how to analyze the
data obtained from observations.
 Moreover, a design specifies what type of statistical analysis to use and

can even suggest the possible conclusions to be drawn from the analysis.
60
 Sampling Methods and Procedures

Sampling is selecting a small number of units from a

population in such a manner that they can be used to

make estimates about the population.
A sample is drawn with the aim of inferring certain

facts about the population from the results in the

sample, a process known as statistical inference.

61
 Cont…
A sample can provide very accurate estimates about

the population it represents if carefully drawn using

well established procedures.

62
 Cont…

Four steps are involved in sampling, regardless of

how elaborate the actual execution may become. They consist of:

i. Defining the population

ii.Choosing and executing the sampling plan

iii. Drawing conclusions based on information extracted from the

sample

iv. Inferring conclusions back to the total population

63
 Cont…
The first two steps must be involved in the planning stage;

the other two constitute the analysis and interpretation stage:

The soundness of the sampling plan will determine how
faithfully we can generalize from our sample back to the
population.

64
 Cont…
a) Population: refers to the totality of the material or

the elements to be studied. e.g. Population of Ethiopia;

All the seeds in a bag; All trees in a forest, etc.

65
 Cont…
b) Element: is that unit about which information is collected
and which provides the basis of analysis.

c) Sample: A sample is a small proportion of a population

selected for observation and analysis from a population in
accordance with specified procedures. In other words, it is a
special subset of a population that is observed for purposes of
making inferences about the nature of the total population.
66
 Cont…
d)The Sampling Unit: is that element or set of elements
considered for selection in some stage of sampling. It may be
natural subdivision like one cow, one field etc. or an arbitrary
one like one (100 seeds withdrawn from a bag.

e) Sampling frame: is the actual list of sampling units from

which the sample is selected. A sampling frame allows access
to the elements of the target population.
67
 Cont…
f) Sample size: The number of sampling units selected
for observation and analysis.

g) Parameter: is the summary description of a given

variable in a sample. Example, the average income
computed from a sample.

68
 Cont…
h) Sampling error: is the extent to which the sample mean is
different from the population mean. It indicates the
fluctuations of a sample statistic around the population
value that a complete census would have yielded

69
 Cont…
i) Census: Study of whole population. It involves complete
enumeration of whole population and needs a huge
organization with an army of enumerators, tabulators and
supervisors. It is extremely useful to have a census of
population every 10 years. Then sample surveys can be
conducted to get information and monitor the changing
conditions and trends.

70
 4.1. Need for sampling and sampling
processes

One reason is economy of effort and manpower.

A closely related reason is that of saving time.

Another consideration may be that, for a small sample, the

persons responsible for making measurements and

observation can be of higher competence than if the whole
population were to be recorded.

71
 4.2. Sampling Methods

Sampling methods can be classified into two

categories:

a. Non-probability samples; and

b. Probability samples.

72
 a) Non-probability Sampling

This involves selection of a sample based on some judgment

and knowledge. It is highly biased but can achieve same

purpose.
Non-probability samples do not allow statistical inferences

but they may be very useful in selecting respondents for an

informal survey. In other words, this is done when precise
representative-ness is not necessary

73
 Cont…
There are three types of non-probability samples.

i) Accidental Sampling

ii) Purposive or Judgmental Sampling

iii) Quota Sampling

74
 i) Accidental Sampling
Sampling made by selecting those who are met accidentally.

For example, stopping people at a street corner and asking

questions or taking the most convenient group one can find.

75
 ii) Purposive or Judgmental Sampling

In this case a sample is elected according to some

characteristic or characteristics of interest. The process

involves deliberately selecting a sample to answer a set of
questions. This is done on the basis of own knowledge of
the population, its elements and general characteristics.

76
 iii) Quota Sampling

In quota sampling, one determines those cases to be included

in the sample by choosing them one the basis of some

common set of characteristics such as age (30 to 50 years),
and sex (male, female).

77
 Cont…
If sex and age are the variables of interest, the researcher

must know what proportion of the population is male and

what proportion is female and for each sex, what proportion

falls into the various age categories.

An accidental sample can be improved by setting quotas for

certain types of individuals according to know proportions in

the population.
78
 b) Probability Sampling

A probability method of sampling is one in which every

sampling unit in the population has an equal and independent

chance of being included or selected for the sample.
 Probability sampling provides an efficient method for

selecting a sample that should adequately reflect the variation

in the population.

79
 Cont..
A basic principle of probability sampling is “A sample

will be representative of the population from which it

is drawn if all members of the population have an
equal chance of being selected in the sample”.
Random selection is the key to the process of
probability sampling.

80
 Cont…
A random selection process is one in which each

element has an equal chance of selection that is

independent of any other event in the selection
process.

81
 Advantages of Probability
Sampling
 Probability sampling avoids conscious or unconscious biases in the

selection of sampling units. If all elements in the population have an

equal chance of selection, there is an excellent chance that the sample
so selected will closely represent the population.
 Probability sampling permits estimates of sampling error. Sampling

error is the extent to which the sample mean is different from the
population mean. Probability samples involve the use of statistical
theory in the design of the study as well as the selection of the sample
82
 Types of Probability Samples
a) Simple Random Sample
b) Systematic Random Sampling
c) Stratified Random Sampling
d) Cluster sampling
e) Multistage sampling

83
 Simple Random Sample

According to this procedure or method, every individual has

an equal chance of being selected.

The individuals are selected in such a way that each has an

equal chance of being selected and that each choice is

independent of any other choice.
Also each member of the population under study is listed

once and only once in the sampling frame.

84
 Cont…
The sample is then chosen by some method

like flipping a coin or random numbers.

With simple random sampling, the mean of the

sample is an unbiased estimate of the

population mean.

85
 b) Systematic Random Sampling
 This sampling method follows the same procedure as simple random

sampling with one exception. In this case the population is ordered in

some systematic manner (example in alphabetical order).
 Systematic random sampling is more convenient than

simple random sampling because in this case the sample

is evenly distributed over the various groups. This is
especially fitting for large populations. This type of
sampling method is usually utilized in vegetation and soil
gradient analysis. Such studies utilizes transects across

86
gradients.
 c)
Stratified Random Sampling
 There are times when it becomes necessary to subdivide the

population into smaller homogeneous groups in order to get more

accurate representation. This process is called stratification.
 It is the process of grouping the members of a population into

relatively homogeneous strata prior to sampling.

 As far as possible the units within the strata should be similar and

the strata should differ as much as possible from each other in

order that full advantage of the gains due to stratification is taken.

87
 Cont…
Stratification uses the researchers knowledge of the

population in order to increase the representativeness of a

sample. The stratification process should maximize
variation between groups and minimize variation within
groups.
Stratification is more efficient than a simple random

sample, particularly where there is homogeneity within and

88
heterogeneity between strata.
 d) Cluster sampling

This is a method used to select the sample in clusters or

groups rather than to take individual units. It is also called

area sampling.
It is a variation of the simple random sample employed

when the geographic distribution of the individuals are

widely scattered.

89
 Cont…
 Thus, groups of individuals having similar characteristics are

put together in one cluster, i.e. geographically contiguous

households, fields, animals, and so on. This means that the
sampling units are clusters or groups and therefore the sampling
frame will be made up of list of clusters or groups. Such
clusters or groups could be villages, ecological zones, college
classes, or plants in a plot. Cluster sampling is one form of
multistage sampling. Cluster sampling is highly recommended
by its efficiency and cost effectiveness.
90
 e) Multistage sampling
 The following example illustrates the nature and use of multistage sampling.

 We may select a sample of villages for an agricultural survey using cluster

sampling method. Then a sample of fields may be selected from the villages
in the sample.
 The villages are the first stage or primary sampling units and the fields are

the second stage sampling units. Furthermore, a plot of a suitable size may
be selected at random from each field in the sample. This sample is the third
stage sampling unit.
 The entire procedure will be called three stage sampling involving villages,

fields and plots.

91
 Determinants of sample size
 The following points may be considered in determining sample

size.

i. Homogeneity of the population: variance in the population on the variable of

interest

ii. The kind of sampling procedure being used.

iii. The number of categories by which the data are to be analyzed.

iv. The precision expected of the sample estimates: margin of error acceptable for
the estimates.

v. The degree of confidence: risk the researcher is willing to take that actual errors
92 exceed the desired margin of error.
 Cont….
 The following formula may be used in estimating the
sample size taking into account the above points (1-5).
 m=(tpq)2/d

 where m =sample size

d = acceptable
t = risk willing to take that actual margin or error
may exceed acceptable margin of error.
p = estimated proportion of the elements in the
population on the variables of interest
q = -p
93
 Cont….
In principle, we choose sample size to keep

sampling error below some pre-determined

value. In survey research, there is always trade
- off between accuracy, coverage and cost.
Sampling error can be reduced by increasing
the sample size.
 However, this can only be done at the expense

of reducing the coverage, i.e., cutting down on

94
the amount of detail that is collected, or by
 Cont…
 The sample size should be adjusted according to the amount of

variability in the population. In an area where there is much

variability, for example, due to mountains, the sample size should
be increased.
 There is usually a trade-off between the desirability of a large

sample and the feasibility of a small one. The researcher must

choose a sample size that can serve as an adequate representative
of the population and is feasible in terms of subject availability,
cost and the requirements of the statistical analysis to be performed
95
 Non-sampling errors

 Frame error: when the frame is not complete, i.e., if it does not

include all the elements and a population.

 Selection error: this occurs when certain elements in the frame has a

greater chance of falling into the sample.

 Non- response error : some portion of the planned sample cannot be

reached or refuse to cooperate.

 Measurement error: all the systematic effects which operate to bias

96
recorded results when a reliable measuring instrument is not used.
 Sample size determination
Perhaps the most frequently asked question concerning

sampling is “What size of sample do I need?”

Choice of sample size is influenced by

 Confidence needed in the data;

Margin of error that can be tolerated;

Types of analysis to be undertaken; and

Size of the sample population and distribution.

97
 Cont…
In addition to the purpose of the study and

population size, three criteria usually will need

to be specified to determine the appropriate
sample size: the level of precision, the level of
confidence or risk, and the degree of variability
in the attributes being measured
98
 Level of precision
 The level of precision, sometimes called sampling error, is the

range in which the true value of the population is estimated to be.

This range is often expressed in percentage points (e.g., ±5
percent) in the same way that results for political campaign polls
are reported by the media. Thus, if a researcher finds that 60% of
farmers in the sample have adopted a recommended practice with
a precision rate of ±5%, then he or she can conclude that between
55% and 65% of farmers in the population have adopted the
practice.
99
 Confidence level
The confidence or risk level is based on ideas encompassed
under the Central Limit Theorem. The key idea encompassed
in the Central Limit Theorem is that when a population is
repeatedly sampled, the average value of the attribute obtained
by those samples is equal to the true population value.
 Furthermore, the values obtained by these samples are
distributed normally about the true value, with some samples
having a higher value and some obtaining a lower score than
the true population value. In a normal distribution,
approximately 95% of the sample values are within two
standard deviations of the true population value (e.g., mean).

10
0
 Degree of variability
 The third criterion, the degree of variability in the attributes being measured, refers to

the distribution of attributes in the population. The more heterogeneous a population,

the larger the sample size required to obtain a given level of precision. The less

variable (more homogeneous) a population, the smaller the sample size needed. Note

that a proportion of 50% indicates a greater level of variability than either 20% or

80%. This is because 20% and 80% indicate that a large majority do not or do,

respectively, have the attribute of interest. Because a proportion of 0.5 indicates the

maximum variability in a population, it is often used in determining a more

conservative sample size, that is, the sample size may be larger than if the true

variability of the population attribute were used.

10
1
 Strategies for determining sample size
There are several approaches to determining the

sample size. These include using a census for

small populations, imitating a sample size of
similar studies, using published tables, and
applying formulas to calculate a sample size.
Each strategy is discussed below.
10
2
 Census for small populations:
 One approach is to use the entire population as the sample. Although

cost considerations make this impossible for large populations, a

census is attractive for small populations (e.g., 200 or less).
 A census eliminates sampling error and provides data on all the

individuals in the population. In addition, some costs such as

questionnaire design and developing the sampling frame are “fixed,”
that is, they will be the same for samples of 50 or 200. Finally,
virtually the entire population would have to be sampled in small
populations to achieve a desirable level of precision.
10
3
 Sample size of a similar study:
Another approach is to use the same sample size as those of

studies similar to the one you plan. Without reviewing the

procedures employed in these studies you may run the risk
of repeating errors that were made in determining the
sample size for another study. However, a review of the
literature in your discipline can provide guidance about
“typical” sample sizes that are used.

10
4
 Published tables:

A third way to determine sample size is to rely

on published tables, which provide the sample

size for a given set of criteria. Sample sizes that
would be necessary for given combinations of
precision, confidence levels, and variability can
be presented.
10
5
 Formulas to calculate a sample size:
The fourth approach to determining sample size is the

application of one of several formulas. Although tables can

provide a useful guide for determining the sample size, you
may need to calculate the necessary sample size for a
different combination of levels of precision, confidence, and
variability. Some of such methods are formula for
calculating a sample.

10
6
 Sample size when estimating a
mean:

10
7
 Cont…

10
8
 Sample size when estimating a percentage or proportion:

10
9
 CHAPTER 5
METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION

There are fundamental decisions that a researcher has to

make in the process of data collection. He has to make a

decision on whether to use secondary or primary source of
data or both.
There are several methods of data collection. The researcher

has to decide which method or combination of methods are

appropriate for his study.
11
0
 Cont…
 When choosing whether to collect quantitative or qualitative data, the

following factors need to be considered:

 1. The purpose for which the data is required: quantitative data is

necessary if one requires a high degree of precision or wants to perform

statistical analysis, while qualitative data is useful for providing a detailed
or vivid impression of the issue or characteristic concerned.

 2. The subject matter: some kinds of subject matter (eg. Production,

export levels, prices, imports, income, etc.) are relatively easily presented
in numerical form, while others (eg. Attitude to a new product, religious
beliefs, etc) tend to be more appropriately presented in qualitative form.
11
1
 Cont…
3. The method of data collection: the collection of
quantitative data is based on statistically designed survey
procedures, while the collection of qualitative data relies
primarily on detailed observation or interview.

4. The method of data presentation: qualitative data can

often be ‘translated’ into a quantitative form if it can be
‘scaled’ in some way; for example, information on attitudes
can be grouped into categories (eg strongly agree, agree,
neutral, disagree, strongly disagree) which can then be
11subjected to statistical analysis.
2
 5.1. Types of Information

 Social scientists have for many years been involved in efforts to

classify the information types to be gathered for research. One

of the most distinct ways is the division of the information or

data to be collected into qualitative and quantitative.

 The obvious difference between the two is that quantitative

methods produce numerical data whereas qualitative methods

describe observations only in words.

11
3
 1. Qualitative information
Qualitative data focuses on the analysis of information

so as to generate qualitative explanation of phenomena.

The techniques used to achieve this goal depend on how

the information is generated.

A number of approaches, which are applicable to the

11
qualitative research process include:
4
 Cont..
 Formal survey and interviewing;

 focus group discussion (FGD);

 participatory rural appraisal (PRA),

 and observation, among others.

 Because qualitative research methods are widely

applied, it is important to appreciate their strengths and

weaknesses.
11
5
 Observation method
 Observation method is a method under which data from

the field is collected with the help of observation by the

observer or by personally going to the field. In a way we
all observe things around us, but this sort of observation is
not scientific observation.
 Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of

data collection for the researcher, when it serves a

formulated research purpose, is systematically planned
and recorded and is subjected to checks and controls on

11
validity and reliability.
6
 Cont.…
Advantages:

1. Subjective bias is eliminated, if observation is done accurately.

2. The information obtained under this method relates to what is currently

happening; it is not complicated by either the past behavior or future intentions

or attitudes.

3. This method is independent of respondents’ willingness to respond and as

such is relatively less demanding of active cooperation on the part of

respondents as happens to be the case in the interview or the questionnaire

method.

 This method is particularly suitable in studies which deal with subjects (i.e.,

respondents) who are not capable of giving verbal reports of their feelings for

11 one reason or the other

7
 Limitations:
1. It is an expensive method.

2. The information provided by this method is very

limited.

3. Sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with

the observational task.

4. At times, the fact that some people are rarely

accessible to direct observation creates obstacle for

this method to collect data effectively.

11
8
 Types of observation:
Structured vs. unstructured observation
 In case the observation is characterized by a careful definition of the

units to be observed, the style of recording the observed information,

standardized conditions of observation and the selection of
pertinent data of observation, then the observation is called as
structured observation.
 But when observation is to take place without these characteristics to be

thought of in advance, the same is termed as unstructured

observation.
 Structured observation is considered appropriate in descriptive studies,

whereas in an exploratory study the observational procedure is most

11
9 likely to be relatively unstructured.
 Unstructured Observation
A) Strengths
Gives a record of actual

Participant observation can be less reactive

B) Weaknesses
Potential reactivity on the part of persons being observed

Requires much time to conduct and write up

Difficult and time consuming

12
0
 Structured Observation
Strengths
 Gives a record of actual

 Easier to administer and to train data collectors

 Data are amenable to quantification

Weaknesses
 More time consuming

 Some behaviors are difficult or sensitive

 Focusing on a specific subject and may miss new or infrequent

12
1 behaviors
 Interview method
 This method of collecting data involves presentation or oral-verbal stimuli and reply

in terms of oral-verbal responses. Interview Method is oral verbal communication.

Where interviewer asks questions (which are aimed to get information required for

study) to respondent. There are different types of interviews:

 Personal interviews

 Telephonic interviews

 Questionnaire method

 Case study method

 Survey method.
12
2
 Cont..
 Personal interviews could be structured or unstructured. The method of collecting

information through personal interviews is usually carried out in a structured way.

As such we call the interviews as structured interviews. Such interviews involve the
use of a set of predetermined questions and of highly standardized techniques of
recording. Thus, the interviewer in a structured interview follows a rigid procedure
laid down, asking questions in a form and order prescribed.
 But unstructured interviews are characterized by a flexibility of approach to

questioning. Unstructured interviews do not follow a system of pre-determined

questions and standardized techniques of recording information. In a non-
structured interview, the interviewer is allowed much greater freedom to ask, in
case of need, supplementary questions or at times he may omit certain questions if
the situation so requires. He may even change the sequence of questions.

12
3
 Unstructured and semi-structured interviewing
strength
Can cover a large no. of topics in great depth

Issues can be explored within a socio-cultural context

Weakness
Sample size is generally small

Time consuming

Requires highly skilled interviewers

12
4
 Systematic Interviewing

Strength
Data are easily compared in different sites
Standard data collection instruments are
used
Can be analyzed using statistical analysis
Weakness
Respondents may not understand the
exercise
Some respondents may feel they are being
tested

12
5
 Focus groups
Strength

 Provides data on consensus, mainstream opinions

 Encourage debate and discuss a key topic

 Can be used to assess feasibility of intervention

Weakness

 Does not pick up the full range of beliefs

 Logistic problems in getting groups of people at specific time

 Some participants may dominate others

12
6
 PRA
strength

 Local people crate and own data

 A high level of rapport s built between investigators and local people

Weakness

 Often difficult to include all members of the community

(unrepresentative)

 Less likely to obtain information on highly sensitive topics like

12
sexual behavior
7
 2.Quantitative Information

Quantitative data is that type of data collected so as to

generate quantifiable results. To attain this goal, quantitative

research relies on statistics.

Indeed, quantitative research is about using statistical

techniques to generate and analyze quantitative data. The

main branches of statistics applicable to quantitative research
are:
12
8
 Cont…
 Techniques used in general research design, particularly sampling

procedures (first step in data collection)

 Techniques for description and display data (descriptive statistics).

Frequency distribution, data tabulation and graphic display are

included.

 Inferential statistics (making decisions from the data). No meaningful

statements can be made about the population from sample results

without resort to the use of this statistics (the basis are probability
12
9 theory).
 5.2. Quantitative Data Collection
Methods

 The most commonly used data collection methods are

observation, questionnaire and interview.

 a) Observation

 Observing is an activity that the researcher does through out

the various stages of the study.

 Whether the scientist looks a lump of soils, at animal, at a

plant, or at human beings – or whether he looks directly or

13
0 through a visual aid such as a microscope or telescope.
 Cont…
Recording data

1. Record the data in an exact system of notation as soon as the

observation is made.

2. Record both observation and interpretation of the

observation. It is a good practice to separate the two.

3. Record most important observations. Some of the most

important observations can be anticipated in advance; others
become apparent as the observation progresses.
13
1
 b) Questionnaire
A questionnaire is a document containing questions and

related items prepared to seek information from respondents.

It is a formatted set of questions that is drawn up to meet the
objectives of the study.
The key factor in the construction of questionnaires is

relevance of the questions to the objectives of the study and

to the individual respondent.

13
2
 Cont…
 Construction a questionnaire which will accomplish the objectives

of the study is a very serious step in the research process. It may be

time consuming also.

Among the points to be considered are:

 The process used to identify and select ideas or topics for questions;

 The form in which questions should be asked to obtain best results;

 The length and scope of the questionnaire.

13
3
 Getting ideas or questions

(i) Review of literature and/or previous studies

(ii) Involve other people in developing ideas for questions.

You may have many more questions than could be included
in a questionnaire.
 So when you ask people to submit questions, also ask
them to rank their ideas in order of their importance.

13
4
 Wording Questionnaires
The questions should:

(i) be simple, clearly stated and easy to answer

(ii)contain only one major idea

(iii)be as short as possible and still communicate the same idea;

(iv)should not be stated in such a way that a particular answer is implied by the

question

(v)questions should be relevant to the central problem of the research;

(vi) avoid negative items.

13
5
 c) The Interview Method

 This is a face to face interaction in which one person, the

interviewer, asks a person being interviewed, the respondent,

questions designed to obtain answers pertinent to the purposes of

the research problem.

 The strength of an interview lies in its flexibility, ensuring a high

rate of response, control of the interview situation, recording of

spontaneous responses and one can prevail upon the respondent to

13
6 complete all questions.
 Types of Interviews

(i) Structured or standardized

interviews
 This is the use of standardized interview schedules that

have been carefully prepared in advance to obtain

information pertinent to the research problem.
 The questions, their sequence and their wording are

fixed. The questions should be neutral and should not

suggest a particular response.
13
7
 (ii) Unstructured Interviews

These are much more flexible.

 Although the research purposes govern the questions

asked, their content, their sequence and their wording are

entirely in the hands of the interviewer.
The interviewer is provided with an interview guide

which includes a list of points or topics which he must

cover during the interview.
13
8
 5.3. SOURCES OF DATA

Primary data are those which are collected once

again and for the first time, and thus happen to be
original in character. Its advantage is its relevance to
the user, but it is also likely to be expensive in time
and money terms to collect.

Secondary data are those which have already been

collected by someone else and which have already
been passed through the statistical process. It is
information extracted from an existing source,
probably published or held on a computer database.
From Practical point of view this type of information is
13 collected for any purpose other than the current
9
 Cont…
 Collection of Primary Data: Primary data can be collected through experimentation in
experimental research or through surveys, whether sample surveys or census surveys.

 An experiment: is a special form of research, which sets out to examine the relationship
between two factors by manipulating one as measuring changes in the other. There are
two types of experiments: Field experiments and laboratory experiments.
 Survey: refers to the method of securing information concerning a phenomenon under
study from all or a selected number of respondents of the concerned universe. In a survey
the investigator examines those phenomena which exist in the universe independent of his
action. Survey designs can be broadly divided into cross-sectional and longitudinal
designs.

 A cross-sectional survey collects data at one time. The researcher can generalize
findings from such one-shot studies to the sampled population only at the time of the
survey. Cross-section survey is most appropriate
1. If the aim of the research is single-time description( political attitude, work motive, etc at
one time)
2. If the aim of the research involves sub-set description( political attitude, work motives of
men and women)

14
0
 cont…
A longitudinal survey takes place over time with two or more data

collections and has the benefit of measuring change over time. The

following are the types of longitudinal surveys:

 A trend survey is a longitudinal survey in which a general population is

studied over time. It is used to study trends. Different samples are

selected from a general population and studied at different time.

E.g. Study on the attitude of workers of a hypothetical company-x towards

their management; the change in Religiosity of Dilla University students

over time.
14
1
 Cont…
 A cohort survey is a longitudinal survey in which
a specific population is studied over time.
Cohort studies involve the collection of data from
different samples that are drawn from the same
specific population ie the same cohort or batch, at
different points in time. Cohort studies focus on the
description of specific population overtime by
taking fresh samples each time data are collected.
E.g.: A cohort study of a given age group could be
studied (say every 10-year). If we collected data on
attitude of 20-years old youth towards marriage,
then we can do it on 30- years group the second
14round, 40-years group the third round and so on.
2
 cont…

NB. Both trend study and cohort study can be

accomplished through secondary data analysis. They are
more appropriate when the research problem merely deals
with broad trend overtime (or process overtime).
 A panel survey is a longitudinal survey in which the
same sample is measured two or more times. The
samples can represent either a specific or a general
population. The sample for such study is known as
panel.
E.g. A researcher might interview all the members of his
panel (i.e. his “lasting” sample) at one-mouth intervals
throughout the campaign. Each time, he would ask them,
whom they plan to vote for; and then when switching
occurred, he would know which person wee switching
14
3
which directions.
 Cont…
A panel studies are used to overcome the limitations of
trend and cohort studies by indicating why the individual
elements in the population shows changes of behavior or
attitude; which is not possible in the other two cases.
However, panel studies are difficult for the following
reasons.
Panel studies (unlike trend and cohort studies) can not be
carried out through secondary analysis of previously
collected data. Therefore, it is expensive and time
consuming.
Its second problem is panel attrition which refers to the
extent of non-response that occurs in later waves of the
study due to some of the interviewees who are unable or
unwilling to be interviewed.
14
4
 cont…
Thirdly, the analysis of panel data can be
rather complicated especially when the study
period is relatively longer.

Panel survey are most appropriate in theory or

ideally when ever the research problem
involves an examination of individual changes
over time (but feasible only when the
phenomena under study is relatively short in
duration.
14
5
 5.4. The Concept of Measurement
Measurement may be defined as quantitative or qualitative

information taken on a certain characteristic.

 It is a process of assigning symbols to dimensions of

phenomena in order to characterize the status of a phenomena

as precisely as possible.

14
6
 There are four types of measurement scales

i. Counting and Enumeration: simple counting is

fundamental to any formal process of measurement. We
assign a numerical value to an object, an attitude, a feeling,
an impression, etc. The object must be uniform and posses a
set of common characteristics which define the unit.

14
7
 Cont….
 ii. Ranking: Ranking is a common means of measuring objects

in terms of some order from small to large, tallest to shortest,

highest to lowest, brightest to darkest, oldest to youngest, and so
on. Though counting is still very much involved we often add
the dimension of order in counting the objects to be analyzed.
 iii. Scoring: scoring is another means of counting which is a

more sophisticated means of classifying a phenomena being

measured.
14
8
 Levels of measurement
There are four levels of measurement.

i) Nominal scale measurement

This is the process of grouping objects into classes so

that all of those in a single class are equivalent with

respect to some property. The purpose is to assign
numbers to individuals or groups in order to
distinguish them.

14
9
 Cont…
In short, nominal measurement is concerned with the

quality that a variable possesses. It deals with measurement

of attributes such as hair color, eye color etc. There is no
other thing that we can do with the numbers. The numbers
merely used for labeling, identification or classification.
Example: Male = 0; Female = 1; Football players 1 – 11

15
0
 ii) Ordinal scale measurement

This represents measurements or data which are made

of ranked values. In this case, the relative sizes of the

numbers assigned to the objects reflect the amounts of
the attribute the object possesses. If one says cow
number one produces more milk than cow number 10,
he is using ordinal scale data.

15
1
 iii) Interval scale measurement

 Measurement or data which contain a constant interval but not a

true zero. e.g. Time, temperature, etc. For example when we talk

about data such as 0 degree Centigrade, 200 degrees Centigrade,

etc., it does not mean that there is no temperature at zero level.

 The zero point is marked arbitrarily by conventional agreement.

Here a number is assigned to an object that equals the number of

units of measurement equivalent to the amount of the property

15
possessed.
2
 iv. Ratio scale measurement
This is a type of measurement scale which has a constant

interval size and a true zero point. By constant interval size

we mean that the difference between two adjacent units is the
same with differences of any other adjacent units.
is important that there exists a zero point on the measurement

scale and that there is a physical significance to this zero.

Example: weights, lengths, volumes, rates, capacities, ages,
etc.
15
3
 Problems of measurement
Validity: refers to the degree to which a technique or method measures what

it claims to measure or is intended to measure. In other words, validity is

that quality of data gathering instrument or procedure that enables it to

determine what it was designed to determine.

 Are we measuring what we think we are measuring? Validity is not a

problem when measuring certain physical properties such as the length or

weight of an object. There are standard mechanisms with which to weigh or

measure the length of an object. Validity becomes a serious problem in

15 behavioral studies.
4
 Cont…
Reliability: refers to consistency, the ability to obtain

the same results again, or the accuracy and precision of

a measuring instrument.

15
5
 Cont…
In other words, reliability is the quality of consistency that the

instrument or procedure demonstrates over a period of time.

Synonyms for reliability include dependability, stability,
consistency, and predictability.
Accuracy: This term stands for how close our measurements

are to the true value of the variable to be measured.

15
6
 Cont…
Precision: This indicates how close our measurements
are to one another. It refers to the degree of agreement
of repeated measurements of a quantity.

15
7
 5.5. Determination of data collection
methods

The researcher will need to decide which method or

combination of methods are appropriate methods for data

collection. The choice of method(s) depends upon the type of
the research problem, the class of phenomena to be
investigated and the time, money, manpower or facilities
available. Any specific method may be more appropriate,
more efficient, or more convincing than others in a given
15
8 situation.
 Cont…
The characteristics of the research problem can clearly

indicate the method that should be employed.

If the researcher depends upon secondary sources of

information, he has no control over the accuracy of the data.

If he is engaged in an original study, the means of collecting

data are directly under his control.

15
9
 Chapter Six: Data Processing , Analysis and Writing report

6.1. Data Management

Research Data Management is the care and maintenance of the

data that is produced during the course of a research cycle. It is
an integral part of the research process and helps to ensure that
your data is properly organized, described, preserved, and
shared.
Data Management Plan (DMP), which is a formal
document that states what you will do with the
data during and after your research project.
16
0
 6.2. Data processing
 Data processing is concerned with editing, coding, classifying,

tabulating and charting and diagramming research data.

 Data processing in research is the collection and translation of a

data set into valuable, usable information. Through this process, a

researcher, data engineer or data scientist takes raw data and
converts it into a more readable format, such as a graph, report or
chart, either manually or through an automated tool.

16
1
 6.2.1. Data Processing Operations
1. Editing: Editing is a process of examining the collected

raw data to detect errors and omissions and to correct

these when possible.
Editing is done to assure that the data are accurate,

consistent with other facts gathered, uniformly entered, as

complete as possible and have been well arranged to
facilitate coding and tabulation.
16
2
 cont.…
2. Field editing: consists in the review of forms by the
investigator for completing what the interviewer (enumerator)
has written in abbreviated and/or in illegible form at the time of
recording the respondents’ responses.
 This type of editing should be done as soon as possible after

the interview, preferably on the very day or on the next day.

While doing field editing, the investigator must restrain himself
and must not correct errors of omission by simply guessing
what the informant would have said if the question had been
asked.
16
3
 cont.…
Central editing should take place when all forms
or questionnaires have been completed and returned
to the office. Editor(s) may correct the obvious
errors such as an entry in the wrong place, entry
recorded in months when it should have been
recorded in weeks, and the like.

16
4
 cont.…
2) Coding: Coding refers to the process of assigning
numerals or other symbols to answers so that
responses can be put into a limited number of
categories or classes.
 These classes must possess the characteristic of

exhaustiveness (there must be a class for every data

item) and also that of mutual exclusivity which
means that a specific answer can be placed in one
and only one cell in a given category set.
16
5
 cont.…
3) Classification: Classification is the process of arranging data
in groups or classes on the basis of common characteristics,
especially for studies with large volume of raw data.
 Data having a common characteristic are placed in one class and

in this way the entire data get divided into a number of groups
or classes. Classification can be according to attributes based on
descriptive information (such as literacy, sex, honesty, income
level, prestige, educational level etc.
16
6
 cont…
4) Tabulation: When a mass of data has been assembled, it becomes
necessary for researcher to arrange the same in some kind of concise and
logical order. This procedure is referred to as tabulation. Thus tabulation is
the process of summarizing raw data and displaying the same in compact
form for further analysis. Tabulation is essential because of the following
reasons:

i) It conserves space and reduces explanatory and descriptive statement to

a minimum

ii) It facilitates the process of comparison

iii) It facilitates the summation of items and the detection of errors and
omissions
16iv) It provides a basis for various statistical computations
7
 6.3. Data Analysis

The term analysis refers to the computation of certain

measures along with searching for patterns of

relationship that exist among data-groups. Analysis
involves estimating the values of unknown parameters
of the population and testing of hypotheses for drawing
inferences. Analysis can be categorized as descriptive
analysis and inferential (statistical) analysis.
16
8
 6.3.1. Descriptive Analysis
Descriptive Analysis: is largely the study of distribution of
one variable. The characteristics of location, spread, and
shape describe distributions. Their definitions, applications,
and formulas fall under the heading of descriptive statistics.
 They describe and summarize data using a few indices or

statistics. They include frequency distributions, measures

of central tendencies (mean, median, and mode); measures
of variability/spread/ or dispersion (range, variance, and
standard deviations); and common measures of shape are
16 skewness and kurtosis.
9
 cont…
 Frequency Distribution- is shows the distribution (or the count)

of individual scores in a sample for a specific variables. A

frequency able indicates “how many times” each score or
response occurs.
 Measures of Central Tendencies – measures of central
tendencies are used to compute summary statistics of variables
being studied. There are three commonly used measures of
central tendency: mode, median, and mean. Researchers are
concerned with various average measures of indicators (e.g. the
median of family income, the mode of transportation, and the
17mean of employees’ salary etc
0
 Table 1:Descriptive Statistics- Measures of Central
Tendency
Static Definition Example Characteristics

 It is a quick and crude way of describing a

Example: distribution of scores
Is the value or score that
Number of peoples in a  A set of scores may have more than one mode
Mode appears most frequently in a
family: 3,4,5,5,6,7,8,9,10  It is possible for a scores not both have any mode
particular variable
The mode is 5 when all the scores occurred with the same
frequency

It is the middle score that Example: It does not take into account the extreme values of
Median divides ranked scores into two Score: 75,80,82,8,87 distributions since it is only a score in the middle of the
equal parts The median is 82 distribution.

It is the average of a set of Example:  The mean takes into account each score in the
scores or measurements: 10,12,12,20,15,10,18,16,8,5 ; distribution.
Mean
Mean of × = Sum of x ÷ then the mean is 126/10 =  One weakness is that it is pulled towards an outlier
number of scores 12.6 or larger score/s/.

17
1
 cont…
Measures of Variability- stating measures of variables using
measures of central tendencies alone, without some qualifying
information on the dispersion of the population could prove
harmful. The term dispersion is used to describe the measures of
variation in the data.
 Dispersion or variability is measured in terms of variance,

standard deviation and range. For instance, the fact that there
is significant variability about the mean score of rural and
urban community income level leads to ask “ why do such
variation happened?”; What could be the causes of this
17 variation?
2
 Table 2: Descriptive Statistics: Measures of Variability

Static Definition Example Characteristics

Example:
 It gives a quick rough estimation of variability. A
Scores:
small range signifies that the score are not
78,79,80,81,82,85
Is the difference between the highest spread out, and a big range implies that scores
The range is 85-78 = 7
Range score and the lowest scores in a are spread out or dispersed.
distribution  It only involves two scores, i.e. the highest score
and the lowest score. It is therefore not sensitive
to the total population.

That is:
S2= ∑ ( xi – xm )2
n-1  It involves subtracting the mean from each score
to obtain the deviation, each deviation is then
It is the sum of squares of deviation Where:
squared, and the sum of the squared deviations is
Variance from the mean divided by the xi = each scores
divided by the degrees of freedoms.
degrees of freedom. xm = sample mean  If the value is small, it implies that the variance
n-1 = degree of is small.
freedom
n = no. of observations

It is the square-root of the variance.

S = √ ∑ ( xi – xm )2  It takes into account all scores and relates to the
Standard It shows the extent to which scores
n-1 mean of their distributions
Deviation in a distributions deviate from their
 It is very sensitive to extreme scores.
mean or average.
17
3
 Cont…
Inferential Analysis: includes two topics, estimation of
population values and testing statistical hypothesis. We may
as well talk of correlation analysis and causal analysis.
Correlation analysis studies the joint variation of two or
more variables for determining the amount of correlation
between two or more variables. Causal (regression)
analysis is concerned with the study of how one or more
variables affect changes in another variable. It is thus a study
of functional relationships existing between two or more
variables.
17
4
 1. Correlation Analysis

In case of bivariate or multivariate populations, we often

wish to know the relation of the two and/or more variables
in the data to one another. We may like to know, for
example, whether the number of hours workers devote for
leisure is somewhat related to their income, to age, to sex, to
education level or to similar other factors.

17
5
 cont…
We may ask ‘Is there any association or correlation
between the two (or more) variables? If yes, of
what degree?’ These questions are answered by
the use of correlation analysis.
 Various forms of correlation coefficients can be

computed in indices that measure relationship or

association, some of which are presented below.

17
6
 cont.…
If the correlation between two variables exists

or not, we have to find out

1. whether or not the correlation ship exists or not

2. Degree of correlation;
3. Is it positive or negativities, i.e. direct or indirect,
and
4. Is the relationship strong or weak

17
7
 cont.…
 This requires determining coefficient of correlation. Simple

correlation coefficient is the most popular statistical measure that

indicated the relationship between the two variables.
 The correlation coefficient ranges from +1 to -1. If the value is +1,

there is a perfect positive relationship, but if the value is -1, a

perfect negative relationship or a perfect inverse relationship is
indicated. If the value is zero, no relationship indicated.

17
8
 1. Karl Pearson’s coefficient of correlation (or simple correlation)

Pearson’s correlation coefficient is the most

widely used method of measuring the degree of

relationship between two variables. It is used
for variables measured at interval or ratio scale
and normally distributed.

17
9
 cont…
. It can be worked out as

18
0
 cont.…
Pearson’s correlation coefficients reveal/give
importance/ to the magnitude and direction of
relationships but not to ranks of pairs. Pearson’s
correlation coefficient varies over a range of +1 through
0 to -1. The sign signifies the direction of relationship .

18
1
 cont.…
There are two basic assumptions for Pearson’s correlation coefficient.
The first is linearity. When r =0, no pattern is evident that could be
described with a single line. It is possible to find coefficients of zero
where the variables are highly related but in a non-linear form.
 The second assumption is a bivariate normal distribution. That is,

the data are from a random sample of a population where the two
variables are normally distributed in a joint manner. If this
assumption is not met, one should select a nonparametric measure
of association.
18
2
 cont.…
To illustrate, suppose that the following data pertains to

six students with respect to two variables x and y, we

can see the correlation of between the two variables as
follows.

18
3
 cont.…
Student X Y X2 Y2 XY

1 5 10 25 100 50

2 3 7 9 49 21

3 1 4 1 16 4

4 6 5 36 25 30

5 7 3 49 9 21

6 2 8 4 64 16

N=6 X = 24 Y= 37 X2 = 124 Y2 = 263 XY= 142

18
4
 cont..

18
5
 2. Spearman’s coefficient of correlation (or rank
correlation)
 This is used for data that are not normally distributed or have

ordered categories. For instance, when the data are not available to
use in numerical form but the information is sufficient to rank the
data as first, second, third, and so forth, we quite often use the rank
correlation method. In fact, the rank correlation coefficient is a
measure of correlation that exists between two sets of ranks.
 The value of Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient will always

ranges between -1 and +1; where +1 indicates a perfect positive

correlation and -1 indicates a perfect negative correlation. A value
of zero (0) indicates no linear relationship.
18
6
 cont.…
For calculating rank correlation coefficient, rank the observations by

giving 1 for the highest value, 2 to the next highest value, and so
forth. If two or more values happen to be equal, then the average of
the ranks which should have been assigned to such values had they
been all different, is taken and the same rank is given to concerning
values.
The next step is to record the difference between ranks (‘d’) for each

pair of observations, then square these differences to obtain a total of

such differences. Finally, Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient can
18
7 be worked out as:
 cont…

18
8
 cont…
To illustrate let us take one example of two sets of
categories of 15 students with rank orders. One category is
“ popularity ranking” ( i.e., the level of popularity of these
15 students among say 120 second year students of
Agricultural economics department, DU, and other
category of “exam-mark ranking” ( i.e., percentage of
marks secured in, say research methods course)

18
9
 cont.…
Students’ Exam Marks Popularity d( difference d2
Name (1) Result (2) ranking (3) in ranking ( 2-3)
L 15 13 2 4
M 7 8 -1 1
N 2 1 1 1
O 5 7 -2 4
P 6 4 2 4
Q 13 15 -2 4
R 9 14 -5 25
S 11 9 2 4
T 8 5 3 9
U 10 10 0 0
V 4 6 -2 4
W 12 11 1 1
X 14 12 2 4
Y 1 2 -1 1
Z 3 3 0 0
D2 = 66

19
0
 Cont…

19
1
 Cont.…
NB. Correlation does not in any case imply a
cause-and-effect relationship. It should also be
noted that there are also other correlation
coefficients than what has been discussed above.

19
2
 6.4. Hypothesis formulation and Testing

Test of hypothesis: Hypothesis is usually considered

as the principal instrument in research. Its main function

is to suggest new experiments and observations.
Hypothesis testing is the procedure of determining the
validity or otherwise of inferences about population
based on results obtained from samples. A hypothesis is
a tentative statement about the expected relationship.
.

19
3
 Cont…
By testing hypothesis, a researcher seeks to evaluate

whether the observed difference, similarities or

associations is so large that it could not have occurred by
chance. In general, it is a mere assumption or some
supposition to be proved or disproved. But for the
researcher, hypothesis is a formal question that he
intends to resolve.
19
4
 Cont…
For Example,
1. Students who receive counseling will show a
greater increase in creativity than students not
receiving counseling.
2. The automobile A is performing as well as
automobile B.

19
5
 Cont…
There are various types of inferential statistical
procedures that are used in testing hypotheses. The
choice of a procedure depends on factors such as size of
samples, types of sample, types of variables and
measurement scale, and types of research design. For
example, an experimental design that compares
differences between two or more groups will use Analysis
of Variance (ANOVA). Relationships and predictions
among variables are best determined using correlation
19 and regression techniques.
6
 Characteristics of
Hypothesis
1. It should be clear and precise.

2. It should be capable being tested.

3. It should state relationship between variables.

4. It should be limited in scope and must be specific,

5. Hypothesis should be stated as far as possible in most simple terms. So

that the same is easily understandable by all.

6. Hypothesis should be consistent with most known facts.

7.Hypothesis should be amenable to testing within a reasonable time.

8. Hypothesis must explain the facts that gave rise to the need for
19
7 explanations.
 CHAPTER SEVEN: PROPOSAL WRITING
7.1. Meaning and purpose of proposal
 Research Proposal: is a simply structured, formal document

that explains what you plan to research(that is your topic)

and why its worth researching(that is your justification) and
how you plan to investigate it(your practical approach).

19
8
 The Purpose of Proposals

 The general purpose for writing proposals is

1. To present the problem to be researched and its

importance.

2. To discuss the research efforts of others who

have worked on related problems.

3. To suggest the data necessary for solving the

problem and how the data will be gathered,
treated,
19
and interpreted.
9
 7.2. Structure/Outline of a research Proposal
There is no single way of writing research proposals. There

can be different formats for research proposals depending on

the funding organizations.
Various organizations have their own styles and formats of

writing a proposal. However, the following proposal

components are usually important.

20
0
 Cont…
1. Covering page
2. Abstract;
3. Introduction/Statement of the research problems
4. Research objectives/hypothesis/justification/key
concepts/
5. Research methods/ preliminary survey of literature
6. Timetable/time schedule or research plan; and
20
1
budget
 1. Cover page
 The cover page contains introductory information for the proposal

 The title of the proposed project or research

 The name of the researcher /author of the proposal/ or

principal investigator/; and the name of the supervisor

 The name of the department/ institution;

 Presentation date .

 NB. Some funding agencies have standardized

cover pages that may contain additional

20 information.
2
 2. Title

It is one of the most important parts of a proposal. It will

immediately attract or loss the interest of any potential donor.

The title should be self explanatory and use the fewest possible
words that adequately describe the content of the paper.
In titles, a researcher has to use specific, familiar, proposal and

short words. Use of ‘waste words’ like ‘A study on …’, ‘An

investigation on…’, ‘An observation on…’ should be avoided.

20
3
 3. Abstract

 It is a short summary of the research. It allows a busy

manager or sponsor to understand quickly the thrust of
the proposal. It should be informative, giving readers
the chance to grasp the essentials of the proposal
without having to read the details. It should include:
A brief statement of the problem,
Research objectives/questions/ to be addressed and,
scope of the research
Types and sources of data to be gathered for the
research
Research design/ procedure/ to be applied to gather
data, tools to be used to analyze the collected data,
20
and the benefits of the approach.
4
 4. Background of the study

In the background, the researcher presents the background

of what he wants to do and say briefly why he thinks the

works should be done and relate it to what is already
known about the problem.
This part of the research provides some general theoretical

basis or justifications for conducting a research. It tells to

the reader from what perspective that the research is to be
conducted or the overall justification as to why it is needed
to conduct the study.

20
5
 5. Statement of the problem

 The statement of the problem typically comes very early in the

research proposal. Here a researcher has to capture the reader’s

attention by stating the problem, and its consequences. It is
important that the problem is distinct from related problems and
that the sponsor can see the delimitations clearly.
 It may focus on literature based disagreements concerning the

issue under investigation. The researcher is expected to state his

problem clearly without the use of idioms or clichés. Each word
of the statement must be expressive, sharp, and indispensable.

20
6
 6. Research objectives

 This part addresses the purpose of the investigation. It is here that

the researchers lay out exactly what is being planned by the

proposed research. The objectives flow naturally from the problem
statement, giving the sponsor specific, concrete, and achievable
goals. It is best to list the objectives either in order of importance or
in general terms first, moving to specific terms.
 The research objectives section is the basis for judging the
remainder of the proposal and, ultimately, the final report. Verify the
consistency of the proposal by checking to see that each objective is
discussed in the research design, data analysis, and result sections.

20
7
 Cont…
 The objective of the research should be formulated in
operational terms in reference to the issues upon which the
research will focus the research questions to be answered and
the types of results expected to be achieved. This section
should include:
 General objective/s/: These are understood as the overall

objectives of the research project;

 Specific objectives: These are understood as the elements of

the research which are directly addressable by the methodology

and which are followed in order to achieve the general
20
8 objectives;
 7. Research hypothesis

The researcher has to clearly state a working hypothesis

whenever it is necessary. A hypothesis is a tentative

predictive statement that represents a very specific
proposed answer to the problem statement. Hypothesis
are important to determine the nature of data needed, to
offer the basis for selecting the samples, the research
procedures and method of analysis, to restrict the scope
of the study thereby preventing it from being too broad,
and to set a framework for reporting the conclusions of
20
9 the study.
 8. Significance of the research

This part shows the explicit benefits and the beneficiaries of

the results of the research being conducted. It states the

importance or contribution that the study will have for
different bodies.
The importance could be to create awareness about the

problem, to provide basis for other researchers, or to extend

the scope of knowledge. Usually, this section is not more
than a few paragraphs.
21
0
 9. Scope of the study

This part indicates the scope (coverage) of the study. It

should be delimited to manageable size. This should be

done in relation to the area coverage as well as to the
treatment of the variables in the study. In stating the
scope, clearly show what is going to be investigated and
what not.

21
1
 10. Limitations of the study

This is a part that you will include some constraints or

difficulties you think that they have influence on the results of

your study.
This may be in relation to the weaknesses in the methodology,

lack of access to data, faulty instruments, sampling restrictions,

lack of recent literature in the area etc. Any restrictions or areas
of the problem that will not be addressed must be indicated.

21
2
 11. Literature review
A section in our research that explains, interprets and

discusses what has been researched and documented

previously is known as review of related literature. The
literature review section examines recent research
studies, company data, or industry reports that act as a
basis for the proposed study.
Begin your discussion of the related literature and
relevant secondary data from a comprehensive
perspective, moving to more specific studies that are
associated with your problem.
21
3
 12. Research methodology

Here, the researcher is expected to clearly state

what he is going to do in technical terms. This

section should describe details of the research
design and the procedure to be followed to achieve
each research objective.

21
4
 13. Reference

In a research proposal we should give a list of

books, journals, and other documents that we

have used in selecting the problem and which
we may use while we conduct the study.

21
5
 14. Budget/logistics and Work plan
 Budget requirement: In order to carry out a given research you need to have money.

The sources may be from government budget or from supporting agencies. Budget
breakdown has to be prepared for all activities. It may include the details of:

 Personal Costs - Principal researcher- subsistence and boarding

- Research assistants- salary/per-diems

 Support Services - Secretarial Costs/ data input and analysis
 Fieldwork costs - Transport/ other relevant expenses/ subsistence
 Overheads - Stationery/ photocopy/ printing/ computer media
 Books/journal costs - Books and journals to be purchased
 Equipment's - Equipment to be bought/ hired ( if any)
21
6
 cont…
 Work plan (Time Schedule): We should also

prepare a realistic time schedule for completing

the study within the time available dividing a
study into phases and assigning dates for the
completion of each phase.
 The work plan (schedule) should include the
major phases of the project together with their
timetables. Major phases may be questionnaire
21
7
preparation, pre-testing, field interviews, editing
 15. Appendices/ Annex:
 This section should include:

Sample questionnaire; and

Brief CV of the researcher (Qualification of

researchers) - This consists of summaries of

the experience, education, publications, and
research activities of individuals who will work on
the proposed project. It is customary to begin
with the principal investigator and then to the co-
21
8
 CHAPTER EIGHT: INTERPRETATION AND REPORT WRITING

Purpose of Report Writing

Research report is considered a major component of
the research study for the research task remains
incomplete till the report has been presented and/or
written.

21
9
 cont…
The following are the important purpose of the writing the reports;

 Presenting the results

 Easy to understand the findings to all
 To take the modification in the research work
 Future reference
 Guidance to other researchers
 Formal completion
 Written evidence

22
 Finding new idea
0
 Different Steps in Writing Report

 Research reports are the product of slow, painstaking, accurate

inductive work.
 The usual steps involved in writing report are:

(a) logical analysis of the subject-matter;

(b) preparation of the final outline;

(c) preparation of the rough draft;

(d) rewriting and polishing; (c) preparation of the final bibliography; and

(f) writing the final draft. Though all these steps are self explanatory,
yet a brief mention of each one of these will be appropriate for better
understanding.
22
1
 CHAPTER-9 : PLAGIARISM

What is Plagiarism
Many people think of plagiarism as copying

another’s work, or borrowing someone else’s

original ideas. But terms like “copying” and
“borrowing” can disguise the seriousness of the
offense:
22
2
 Cont…
 According to the Merriam-Webster OnLine Dictionary, to

“plagiarize” means

1. to steal and pass off (the ideas or words of another) as

one's own

2. to use (another's production) without crediting the source

3. to commit literary theft

4. to present as new and original an idea or product derived

from
22
an existing source.
3
 Cont..
 In other words, plagiarism is an act of fake. It involves both stealing
someone else’s work and lying about it afterward.
 But can words and ideas really be stolen?

 According to U.S. law, the answer is yes. In the United States and
many other countries, the expression of original ideas is considered
intellectual property, and is protected by copyright laws, just like
original inventions. Almost all forms of expression fall under
copyright protection
 as long as they are recorded in some media (such as a book or a
computer file).

22
4
 Cont.…
 All of the following are considered plagiarism:
 turning in someone else’s work as your own
 copying words or ideas from someone else without giving credit
 failing to put a quotation in quotation marks
 giving incorrect information about the source of a quotation
 changing words but copying the sentence structure of a source
without giving credit
 copying so many words or ideas from a source that it makes up the
majority of your work, whether you give credit or not (see our
section on “fair use” rules)

22
5
 Cont…
 Attention! Changing the words of an original source is not

sufficient to prevent plagiarism. If you have retained the

essential idea of an original source, and have not cited it, then no
matter how drastically you may have altered its context or
presentation, you have still plagiarized. Most cases of plagiarism
can be avoided, however, by citing sources. Simply
acknowledging that certain material has been borrowed, and
providing your audience with the information necessary to find
22 that source, is usually enough to prevent plagiarism.
6
 Types of Plagiarism

Anyone who has written or graded a paper knows that

plagiarism is not always a black-and-white issue. The

boundary between plagiarism and research is often
unclear. Learning to recognize the various forms of
plagiarism, especially the more ambiguous ones, is an
important step in the fight to prevent it.

22
7
 1. SOURCES NOT CITED

1) “The Ghost Writer”

The writer turns in another’s work, word-for-word, as his or her

own.

2) “The Photocopy”

The writer copies significant portions of text straight from a single

source, without alteration.

3) “The Potluck Paper”

The writer tries to disguise plagiarism by copying from several

different sources, tweaking the sentences to make them fit
together while retaining most of the original phrasing.
22
8
 Cont.…
4) “The Poor Disguise”
Although the writer has retained the essential content of
the source, he or she has altered the paper’s
appearance slightly by changing key words and phrases.
5) “The Labor of Laziness”
The writer takes the time to paraphrase most of the
paper from other sources and make it all fit together,
instead of spending the same effort on original work.
6) “The Self-Stealer”
The writer “borrows” generously from his or her
previous work, violating policies concerning the
expectation of originality adopted by most academic
institutions.
22
9
 2. SOURCES CITED (but still plagiarized!)

1. “The Forgotten Footnote”

 The writer mentions an author’s name for a source, but
neglects to include specific information on the location of
the material referenced. This often masks other forms of
plagiarism by obscuring source locations.
2. “The Misinformer”
 The writer provides inaccurate information regarding the
sources, making it impossible to find them.
3. “The Too-Perfect Paraphrase”
 The writer properly cites a source, but neglects to put in
quotation marks text that has been copied word-for-word,
or close to it. Although attributing the basic ideas to the
source, the writer is falsely claiming original presentation
and interpretation of the information.
23
0
 Cont…
1. “The Resourceful Citer”
The writer properly cites all sources, paraphrasing and
using quotations appropriately. The catch? The paper
contains almost no original work! It is sometimes
difficult to spot this form of plagiarism because it looks
like any other well-researched document.

2. “The Perfect Crime”

Well, we all know it doesn’t exist. In this case, the
writer properly quotes and cites sources in some
places, but goes on to paraphrase other arguments
from those sources without citation. This way, the
writer tries to pass off the paraphrased material as his
23
or her own analysis of the cited material.
1
 Preventing Plagiarism(Student
Resources)
1. Consult with your instructor
Have questions about plagiarism? If you can’t

find the answers on our site, or are unsure about

something, you should ask your instructor. He or
she will most likely be very happy to answer your
questions. You can also check out the guidelines
for citing sources properly. If you follow them,
and the rest of the advice on this page, you
23
2 should have no problems with plagiarism
 2. Plan your paper
Planning your paper well is the first and most important

step you can take toward preventing plagiarism. If you

know you are going to use other sources of information,
you need to plan how you are going to include them in
your paper. This means working out a balance between the
ideas you have taken from other sources and your own,
original ideas. Writing an outline, or coming up with a
thesis statement in which you clearly formulate an
argument about the information you find, will help
establish the boundaries between your ideas and those of
23
3 your sources.
 3. Take Effective Notes

 One of the best ways to prepare for a research paper is by taking

thorough notes from all of your sources, so that you have much of
the information organized before you begin writing. On the other
hand, poor note-taking can lead to many problems – including
improper citations and misquotations, both of which are forms of
plagiarism! To avoid confusion about your sources, try using
different colored fonts, pens, or pencils for each one, and make sure
you clearly distinguish your own ideas from those you found
elsewhere. Also, get in the habit of marking page numbers, and
make sure that you record bibliographic information or web
addresses for every source right away – finding them again later
23 when you are trying to finish your paper can be a nightmare!
4
 4. When in doubt, cite sources

 Of course you want to get credit for your own ideas. And you
don’t want your instructor to think that you got all of your
information from somewhere else. But if it is unclear whether
an idea in your paper really came from you, or whether you
got it from somewhere else and just changed it a little, you
should always cite your source. Instead of weakening
your paper and making it seem like you have fewer original
ideas, this will actually strengthen your paper by:
 1) showing that you are not just copying other ideas but are
processing and adding to them,
 2) lending outside support to the ideas that are completely
yours, and
 3) highlighting the originality of your ideas by making clear
distinctions between them and ideas you have gotten
23
elsewhere.
5
 5. Make it clear who said what

Even if you cite sources, ambiguity in your phrasing can

often disguise the real source of any given idea, causing
inadvertent plagiarism. Make sure when you mix your own
ideas with those of your sources that you always clearly
distinguish them. If you are discussing the ideas of more
than one person, watch out for confusing pronouns. For
example, imagine you are talking about Harold Bloom’s
discussion of James Joyce’s opinion of Shakespeare, and you
write: “He brilliantly portrayed the situation of a writer in
society at that time.” Who is the “He” in this sentence?
Bloom, Joyce, or Shakespeare? Who is the “writer”: Joyce,
Shakespeare, or one of their characters? Always make sure
to distinguish who said what, and give credit to the right
23
person.
6
 6. Know how to Paraphrase:

A paraphrase is a restatement in your own words of

someone else’s ideas. Changing a few words of the
original sentences does NOT make your writing a
legitimate paraphrase. You must change both the words
and the sentence structure of the original, without
changing the content. Also, you should keep in mind that
paraphrased passages still require citation because
the ideas came from another source, even though you are
putting them in your own words.
The purpose of paraphrasing is not to make it seem like
you are drawing less directly from other sources or to
reduce the number of quotations in your paper. It is a
common misconception among students that you need to
23hide the fact that you rely on other sources.
7
 cont..
 Actually it is advantageous to highlight the

fact that other sources support your own ideas.

Using quality sources to support your ideas
makes them seem stronger and more valid.
Good paraphrasing makes the ideas of the
original source fit smoothly into your paper,
emphasizing the most relevant points and
leaving out unrelated information.
23
8
 7. Evaluate Your Sources

 Not all sources on the web are worth citing – in fact, many of them are

just plain wrong. So how do you tell the good ones apart? For starters,
make sure you know the author(s) of the page, where they got their
information, and when they wrote it (getting this information is also an
important step in avoiding plagiarism!). Then you should determine how
credible you feel the source is: how well they support their ideas, the
quality of the writing, the accuracy of the information provided, etc. We
recommend using Portland Community College’s “rubrics for evaluating
web pages” as an easy method of testing the credibility of your sources.
23
9
 THE END
THANK YOU!!!

24
0