• Magnetism is perhaps that aspect of solid slate physics which has been

familiar to man for the longest period of time.

• The ability of lodestone (magnetite) to attract iron objects was known to
ancient Greeks about 1000 years ago.
• A vast wealth of experimental data on the phenomenon was available long
before any conclusive theory of magnetism could be developed.
• For example, it was known that iron could be magnetized by:
• stroking it with another magnet
• hammering it when placed in the magnetic meridian
• holding it somewhere in the vicinity of a strong magnet
• In fact , almost everything known about the magnetic properties of materials
have been derived from experimental discoveries and from a few inspired
guesses.
• This is mainly due to the reason that a quantitative description of magnetism
requires the knowledge of quantum mechanics and electromagnetic theory
of many atom system, which is generally very complex.
RESPONSE OF S UBSTANCE TO MAGNETIC FIELD

• A magnetic field can be described by either magnetic induction B (or magnetic flux density)
or the field strength H.

• In vacuum:
B = 0H (1)
where 0 = 4 x 10-7 H-m-1 = permeability of the free space

• When a substance is placed in a magnetic field, it gets magnetized

• A magnetization M = magnetic moment per unit volume = M/V is produced in it.
• Magnetic induction inside the substance is given by

due to external field due to the magnetization

• For an isotropic medium, M and H are parallel vectors and are related to each other
according to the relation
M=H (3)
 = susceptibility of medium = a scalar quantity
Substituting the value of M from eq 3 into eq . 2. we have

m = permeability of medium
It is often more convenient to use the relative permeability r

6
CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS
• Magnetic materials can be classified into different categories according to their  values and the
way in which these vary with the magnetic field strength and temperature.
• Diamagnetic
• Paramagnetic
• Ferromagnetic
• Antiferromagnetic
• Ferrimagnetic
• The Diamagnetic property is the result of an induced magnetic moment .
• This arises when an atom is placed in a magnetic field.
• The motion of orbital electrons of the atom (analogous to a current flowing in a circuit ) gets
modified in such a way that weak magnetic moment opposing the field is induced.
• Also, if  is negative in eq . 3. the direction of magnetization M is opposite to that of the field H.
• A diamagnetic solid has a tendency to repel the magnetic lines of force due to an external
applied field ( Fig. 161a).
• A superconductor which repels all the lines of force, is an example of perfect diamagnet.
• Diamagnetic substances include: Inert gases (helium, argon), metals (bismuth, copper, zinc,
gold, silver), mercury, water, glass, marble and many other organic compounds.
• For a diamagnetic substance r or  is independent of temperature.
• Unlike diamagnetism, paramagnetism and ferromagnetism are the result ot
intrinsic magnetic moment.
• Some atoms and ions do possess permanent magnetic moment.
• In the absence of an external field:
• these moments are randomly oriented with respect to one another because
of thermal fluctuations
• therefore the substance exhibits no net magnetic moment.
• However, when placed in a magnetic field, the moments tend to align along the
direction of field, producing a net magnetization
• When the atoms and ions are acted upon individually, with no mutual interaction
between them, the effect is called paramagnetism
• Since the moments line up in the direction of field which help enhance the
external field, the paramagnetic susceptibility is greater than zero.
• Further, because of small paramagnetic susceptibility a paramagnetic substance
weakly attracts the lines of force (Fig. 16.1b).
• As thermal energy randomizes the alignment of the dipoles, the paramagnetic
susceptibility decreases with the increase of temperature.
• Paramagnetic substances include aluminium, platinum, potassium, manganese,
the rare-earth elements, alkali and alkaline earth metals, etc.
• A ferromagnetic substance possesses permanent (spontaneous) magnetic
moments even in the absence of an external magnetic field.
• Since, the ferromagnetic susceptibility is very large and positive, so that a
ferromagnetic substance strongly attracts the lines of force (Fig. 16.1c).
• Ferromagnetism exists only below a certain temperature Tc, above which
the substance becomes paramagnetic.
• Ferromagnetic substances include iron, cobalt, nickel and a number of
alloys.
• In fully magnetized state of a ferromagnet, all the dipoles are aligned in
exactly the same direction (Fig. 16.2a).
• An antiferromagnetic substance has the dipoles with equal moments, but
the alternate dipoles point in opposite directions (Fig. 16.2b).
• As a result, the moments balance each other and result in a zero net
magnetization.
• Another commonly encountered substance is ferrimagnetic, the moments
of which are shown in Fig. 16.2c.
• In this case too, the neighbouring dipoles point in opposite directions but
they are unequal.
• As a result, they do not completely balance each other and possess finite
net magnetization
 ATOMIC THEORY OF MAGNETISM

• In an atom, we know that the electrons revolve round the

nucleus in different circular orbits.
• Analogous to this situation let us consider an electron of mass m,
having an electronic charge (-e) moving in a circular orbit of
radius r with a velocity v (angular velocity co) as shown in Fig.
16.3.
• From the basic knowledge of current electricity, we know that a
moving electron constitutes an electric current
I=dq/dt and Ids=(dq/dt)ds=dq (ds/dt) =-ev 7
• Where dq=-e and v=ds/dt, the linear velocity.
• But for a circular orbit, ds=2r and v=r, so that

8
• From electromagnetic theory, it is well known that magnetic field produced by a current I flowing in
a stationary loop of cross sectional area at right angles to the plane of current loop is identical with
that produced by a magnetic dipole when measured at large distance (as compared to radius of
loop).
The magnitude of the magnetic moment produced by (the circular motion of the electron) such a dipole is

• where L= mr2 is orbital angular momentum of electron and is normal to

the plane of the orbital.
• Minus sign in eq. 10 indicates that magnetic moment is antiparallel to the
angular momentum L (Fig. 16.4).
• This equation (10) is valid only for motion of electron and not for spin of
the electron or nucleus.
• Therefore, to understand the origin of magnetic moments of an atom
completely, we have to take into account the spinning motion of electron
and nucleus as well.
THE QUANTUM NUMBERS
• These are integral or half integral numbers used to specify the state of a system in Quantum
Mechanics.
• The four quantum numbers are:
• The Principle Quantum Number, n
• The principle quantum number determines the energy level of the electron in an atom.
• It can accept only integer values, i.e. n =1,2,3,4……
• The corresponding electronic levels are called the K , L , M , N , …….orbits.
• Thc Orbital Quantum Number, I
• This determines the electronic state of an atom and is related to the shape of the electron
orbital.
• The values of orbital quantum number are restricted to I = 0, 1, 2, 3,... (n - 1),
• where n is the principle quantum number.
• The electrons associated with the states I = 0,1,2,3, ... are called s, p, d, f,... electrons,
respectively.
• The total angular momentum associated with a given value of I is
3. The Magnetic Quantum Number ml
• When an atom is placed in an external magnetic field, the direction of the
angular momentum vector and hence the magnetic moment, precesses about
the field direction and can have only specific orientation in space.
• The orientation of the vector Ll in an external magnetic field of induction B is
characterized by its projection Ll,B along the direction ol B (Fig. 16.5), i.e.
Fig. 16.5 Projection of
angular momentum along
• The vector Ll, can have only such orientations at which the projection Ll,B will field

take on integral values that are multiple of h i.e.

• The integer mi determining the possible values of Lh B is called magnetic

quantum number.
• It can have the following values

Fig. 16.6 Possible

• where / is the orbital quantum number. orientation of an angular
momentum defined by
• From eq. 14, it is clear that Ll can have ( 21 + 1 ) possible values. quantum number l In an
• Fig. 16.6 shows the possible orientations of the vector L / for an electron in p external magnetic field
The Magnetic Spin Quantum Number, ms

• As has been pointed out above that the electrons have spinning motion in
addition to their orbital motion
• According to the quantum theory, the spin is a fundamental property of an
electron and thereby has its own angular momentum.
• In a magnetic field of induction vector spin angular momentum is oriented
such that its projection along the field direction takes only two values, i.e.,

(15)

• The angular momentum is pointing either upwards or downwards

depending on whether the electron is spinning clockwise or anti-clockwise
in the field (figure 16.7).
• The corresponding spin quantum number ms are (+1/2) or (-1/2).
THE ORIGIN OF PERMANENT MAGNETIC MOMENTS
• Permanent magnetic moments can arise from the following three different sources:
• 1 the orbital magnetic moment of the electrons.
• 2. the spin magnetic moment of the electrons, and
• 3. the spin magnetic moment of the nucleus.

1 The Orbital Magnetic Moment of the Electrons

• Based on the classical consideration of atomic theory of magnetism , we obtained an expression
(eq. 10) of magnetic moment.
• However, quantum consideration tells us that the angular momentum vector can take only
specific orientation in space (given by eq 13) when the atom is placed in an external magnetic
field.
• Therefore , with the help of these equations (eqs 10 and 13) we get
• It is the quantum of orbital magnetic moment and is accepted as one unit for measuring the
magnetic moments of atomic systems.
• In a complex atom whose shells have many electrons, the total orbital magnetic moment is
determined by taking the algebraic sum of the magnetic moments of individual electrons in
compliance with the rules.
• The moment of a completely filled shell is zero and hence an atom with partially filled shells will
have a non zero orbital magnetic moment.
2 . The Spin Magnetic Moment of the Electrons
• Like orbital magnetic moment, the spin magnetic moment can be determined by substituting
value of magnetic spin angular momentum S from eq15 into eq10
(17)
• That is, the spin magnetic moment is half of a Bohr magneton .
• This is only approximately correct because eq. 10 is not valid for electron spins.
• In tact , the magnetic moment component along the field direction is given by

where g is called the spectroscopic splitting factor or the Lande’s splitting factor.
• For the electron spin g = 2.0023, i.e. the electron spin gives rise very nearly one Bohr magneton
in the direction (or opposite) of an external field .
• The reason for the name splitting factor” is the following.
• Consider an electron having no orbital motion , is placed in a magnetic field of induction B.
• As a result, the electron spin magnet rotates and the potential energy of the magnetic system
changes.
• The potential energy of a magnetic dipole is then given by

• Now, since we know that the magnetic spin quantum number ms can take two values, either
+1/2 or -1/2.
• It is reasonable to assume that before the application of the field, the electron is in the higher
energy state, i .e. ms = +1/2 and after the application of the field it flips over to the lower energy,
i.e. ms = -1/2.
• For the state ms = +1/2, the angular momentum vector is parallel to the field which is seen as
antiparaliel to the magnetic moment (angle between  and B is 180°).
• Accordingly, for the state ms = -1/2, the magnetic moment is parallel to the field (i.e. the angle
between  and B is zero ).
• Making use of this in eq. 19 and substitutin sz for  ( from eq . 18), the change in the energy of
the electron spin magnetic moment is
• Thus g determines the amount by which the original level splits up under the influence of
magnetic field.
• This is illustrated in Fig. 16.8.
• Sometimes, the orbital angular momentum L and spin angular momentum S may be combined
vectorially to get the total angular momentum J of the whole electron system of the atom .
• For such atoms, the spectroscopic splitting factor g is given by the Lande formula

(21)

• So that the total magnetic moment of atomic system becomes

22
• The values of g and J are known from the spectroscopic data and the total magnetic moment
of a free atom or ion, in principle, can be determined,
3. The Spin Magnetic Moment of the Nucleus
• just like an electron:
• atomic nucleus possesses intrinsic spin
• magnetic moment is associated with this
• Nuclear mass is about 103 times > mass of an electron
• nuclear magnetic moment ~three orders of magnitude < electron magnetic moment
• Nuclear magnetic moment is expressed in unit of nuclear magneton.
• A nuclear magneton is defined:

(23)

Mp = mass of a proton