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CH-1 Introduction To Surveying

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
35 views56 pages

CH-1 Introduction To Surveying

Uploaded by

haile akelok
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Surveying I (SEng-2061 )

Lecturer :- Haile Akelok


(MSC in Geomatics , BSc in Surveying Engineering)
[email protected]
1. Concept of surveying: Introduction, meaning and concept of
surveying, objective of surveying, classification of surveying, use
of survey, error in surveying
2. Distance Measurement and Taping: Types of distance
measurement, direct method, indirect method, optical distance
measurement, taping and pacing, instruments for Taping,
ranging a line, taping on sloppy ground, Errors and mistakes in
taping, Tape correction.
3. Leveling: steps in leveling, principles of leveling, booking
method of leveling, types of leveling, errors in leveling,
engineering application of leveling
4. Theodolite surveying: Definition and primary classification,
measurement of horizontal and vertical angles, Azimuths and
CH-1:-Basic Concept of surveying
Surveyin
Introduc

Surveying Applications
divisions of

Importance of
Classifica

surveying
Basic

Surveying
Primary
tion of
tion

Measure
survey
g
ments in
based on
Surveyin
instrume
g
nts used
Introduction Surveying
Brain storm question

• What is surveying

• What are primarily classification of


surveying

• What Important of surveying

• Objective and purpose of Surveying

• Why Surveying is art science and


technology
Definition of Surveying

• Surveying is an interchangeably called geomatics has traditionally


been defined as the science, art, and technology of determining
the relative positions of points above, on, or beneath the Earth's
surface, or of establishing such points

• Surveying Is the art and science of determining the relative


position of various points or station above, on, or beneath the
surface of the earth and locating the points in the field and taking
the details of these point by preparing a map or plan to any scale.

• Measurement taken in horizontal and vertical plane


The relative positions are determined by measuring;

• Horizontal distance,

• Vertical distances (elevations),

• Horizontal angles and

• Vertical angles accurately using various surveying


instruments..

• Measurement are taken horizontal and vertical plane.

• The stage of survey work is from office work to field work and vise
versa
Why Surveying is art and Science?
• Surveying may be defined as the science of determining the
position, in three dimensions, of natural and man-made features
on or beneath the surface of the Earth.

Because the use of mathematical techniques to analyze field


data.

• Accuracy and reliability depends on understanding scientific


principles underlying and affecting survey measurement.

• Surveying are also define as the art of determine relative position


Because only a surveyor who has full understanding of surveying
techniques will be able to determine the most efficient methods
required to obtain optimal results over a wide variety of surveying
problems.
Object of Surveying
►The primary object of surveying is to prepare a plan or
map to show the relative position of the objects on
the surface of the earth. These plans and maps are used

• for planning of engineering works, making of


boundaries, computations of area and volumes,
and various other purposes/related quantity's.

• To established the boundaries of the land

• To select suitable site for engineering project


Working from Whole to part principle

• In surveying large areas a system of control point are


identified and they are located with high precision. Then
secondary control points are located using lesser precise
methods

• The details of the localized areas are measured and


plotted with respected to the Secondary Control Points.

• This principle in surveying helps in localizing the error

• If the surveying is carried out by adding localized area


errors accumulated and may become unacceptable when
large area is covers
Locate appoint by at least Two
Measurements principle
The work of the surveyor consists of 5 phases:
1. Decision Making – selecting method, equipment and final point
locations.

2. Fieldwork & Data Collection – making measurements and recording


data in the field.

3. Computing & Data Processing – preparing calculations based upon


the recorded data to determine locations in a useable form.

4. Mapping or Data Representation – plotting data to produce a map,


plot, or chart in the proper form.

5. Stakeout – locating and establishing monuments or stakes in the


proper locations in the field.
Purpose of surveying
The surveying may be used for following purposes
• To prepare a topographical map which shows hills, valleys, rivers,
forests, villages, towns etc.
• To prepare a cadastral map which shows the boundaries of fields, plots,
houses and other properties.
• To prepare an engineering map which shows the position of engineering
works such as buildings, roads, railways, dams, canals.
• To prepare a contour map to know the topography of the area to find out
the best possible site for roads, railways, bridges, reservoirs, canals, etc.
• Surveying is also used to prepare military map, geological map,
archaeological map etc.
• For setting out work and transferring details from the map on the
ground
• “A surveyor is a professional person with the academic qualifications and
technical expertise to conduct one, or more, of the following activities;

• To determine, measure and represent the land, three-


dimensional objects, point-fields, and trajectories

• to assemble and interpret land and geographically related


information;

• To use that information for the planning and efficient


administration of the land, the sea and any structures thereon;
and

• To conduct research into the above practices and to develop


them
Brief History of Surveying:
1. Surveying had it’s beginning in Egypt about 1400 BC
• Land along the Nile River was divided for taxation. Divisions were washed away
by annual floods.
• “ROPE-STRETCHERS” Egyptian surveyors were created to relocate the land
divisions (measurements were made with ropes having knots at unit distances).
• Extensive use of surveying in building of Egyptian monuments

2. Greeks: expanded Egyptian work and developed Geometry.


• Developed one of the earliest surveying instruments – Diopter (a form of
level).
Brief History of Surveying:
3. Romans: developed surveying into a science to create the
Roman roads, aqueducts, and land division systems.
• Surveyors held great power, had schools and a professional organization
• Developed several instruments:
• Groma – cross instrument used to determine lines and right angles
• Libella – “A” frame with a plumb bob used for leveling
• Chorobates – 20’ straight edge with oil in notch for leveling

4. Middle Ages: Land division of Romans continued in Europe.


• Quadrans – square brass frame capable of turning angles up to 90° and has a
graduated scale developed by an Italian named Von Piso.
Brief History of Surveying:
5. 18th & 19th Century in the New World: the need for mapping and marking
land claims caused extensive surveying, especially by the English.
• 1785: United Stated began extensive surveys of public lands into one mile square sections
• 30 states surveyed under the U.S. Public Land System (also called the Rectangular System)

• 1807: United States Geological Survey founded to establish an accurate control network
and mapping
• Famous American Surveyors: George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, George Rogers Clark,
Abe Lincoln and many more.
Brief History of Surveying:
6. 20th Century and Beyond: As technology advanced, population increased,
and land value caused development of licensure for surveyors in all states.
• Educational requirements for licensure began in the early 1990’s
• Capable of electronic distance measurement, positioning using global positioning
systems, construction machine control, and lidar (scanning) mapping
• Involvement in rebuilding of the infrastructure and geographic information systems
(GIS)
• Shortage of licensed professionals is projected well into the 21st century
Classification of Surveying
Primary divisions of surveying
• Primary division of surveying is made on the basis
of whether the curvature of the earth is considered or
assumed to be flat plane.
Primary division of surveying

Plane surveying Geodetic surveying


1. Plane surveying

• It is the type of surveying in which the curvature of the earth is neglected


and it is assumed to be flat surface.
• This is because plane surveying is carried out over a small area,
so the surface of the earth is considered as a plane.

• All distance and horizontal angles are assumed to be projected on to a


horizontal plane.
• Plane surveying can safely be used when
one is concerned with small portion of the
earth's surface and areas involved are less
than 250sq.km or so.
• The degree of accuracy required in this
2. Geodetic Surveying

• It is the type of surveying in which the curvature of


the earth is taken into consideration, and a very
standard of accuracy is maintained.

• The main objective of geodetic surveying is to


determine the precise location of a system of widely
spaced points on the surface of the earth.
Surveying Applications
• Control surveying: It consists of establishing the horizontal
and vertical positions of widely spaced control points using the
principles of geodetic surveying.

• Land surveying: Land surveys are conducted to determine


the boundaries and areas of tracts of land. These are the
oldest types, as land surveys have been used since the early
civilization. These are also known as property surveys,
boundary surveys or cadastral surveys. These surveys are also
used to provide data for making a plan of the area.
• Topographical surveys: Topography is defined as the shape or
configuration of the earth‟s surface. These surveys are required to
establish horizontal locations of the various points as well as their
vertical locations. Information pertaining to relief and undulation on
the earth‟s surface is generally shown in the form of contours of
equal elevations.

• Route surveying: These surveys are special types of surveys


conducted along a proposed route for highway, railway, sewer line
etc. Route survey is done along a wide strip. In general, route
surveying also includes the staking out and calculation of the earth
work.
Topographical surveys:

Route surveying:
Satellite surveys:
Land surveying: Control surveying:
Engineering surveys:

Construction surveys:
• Mine surveys: These surveys are conducted to determine the relative

positions and elevations of mines, shafts, bore holes etc for underground

works. Mine surveys are useful to plan the working of mines and to compute

volumes of materials in mines

• Hydrographic surveys: These surveys are conducted on or near the body of

water, such as lakes, rivers, bays, harbors

• Construction surveys: All the above-mentioned surveys are conducted to

obtain information required for preparation of maps, plans, and sections etc.

After the plans have been prepared and the structures designed, the

construction survey is conducted. The points and lines are established on the
• Engineering surveys: Engineering surveys are conducted to collect data for
the designing and planning of engineering works such as building, roads,
bridges, dams, reservoirs, sewers and water supply lines. These surveys
generally include surveys discussed above.

• Astronomic surveys: These surveys are conducted for the determination of


latitudes, Azimuths, local time etc. for various places on the earth by observing
heavenly bodies (the sun and stars )

• Satellite surveys: These surveys are conducted to obtain intercontinental,


inter datum and interisland geodetic ties the entire world over by artificial
earth‟s satellites

• Geological surveys: Geological surveys are conducted to obtain information


about different strata (layer) of the earth‟s surface for geological studies
Chain Survey :- simplest type of surveying in which
only linear measurements are made with a chain or
tape. Angle measurement are not taken
In compass surveying, the horizontal
angles are measured with the help of a
magnetic compass, in addition to the linear
measurements with a chain or a tape.
This is a type of survey in which a
leveling instrument is used for
determination of relative elevations
(levels) of various points in the vertical
plane with the help of level instrument
• : A tachometer is a special type of theodolite that is fitted with a
stadia diaphragm having two horizontal cross hairs in addition to the
central horizontal hair. In tachometric surveying horizontal angles,
horizontal distances and elevations are measured with a tachometer

A tachometer is a special type of theodolite that is fitted


with a stadia diaphragm having two horizontal cross hairs
in addition to the central horizontal hair.
In tachometric surveying horizontal angles, horizontal
Photogrammetry is a science of taking measurements with
the help of photographs. Photogrammetric surveys are
generally used for topographic mapping of vast areas.
Trilateration is a type of triangulation in which all the three sides of each
triangle are measured accurately with EDM instruments. The angles are
computed indirectly from the known sides of the triangles. Thus all the sides
and angles are determined.
Error in surveying
• A discrepancy is defined as the difference between two or more measured
values of the same quantity.
• However, measurements are never exact and there will always
be a degree of variance regardless of the survey instrument or
method used.
• These variances are known as errors and will need to be reduced
or eliminated to maintain specific survey standards.
• Errors, by definition, are the difference between a measured value and its
true value.
• The true value of a measurement is determined by taking the
mean value of a series of repeated measurements.
• Surveyors must possess skill in instrument operation and
knowledge of surveying methods to minimize the amount of error
in each measurement
Error and mistake
Difference between a measurement and the true value

• Errors can be positive or negative depending on whether the true value is larger or
smaller than the measured value

Mistakes
• Also known as blunders
• Usually caused by lack of care or attention in the measurement process by
humans
• There are cases of technology defects that appear as blunders in
measurements
Mistakes are sometimes called gross errors, but should not
be classified as errors at all. They are blunders, often
resulting from fatigue or the inexperience of the surveyor.
• Typical examples are omitting a whole tape length when
measuring distance, sighting the wrong target in a round of
angles, reading ‘6’ on a levelling staff as ‘9’ and vice
versa.
• Mistakes are the largest of the errors likely to arise, and
therefore great care must be taken to obviate them.
• However, because they are large they are easy to spot and
so deal with.
Type of error
Systematic or Accidental, random
cumulative or compensating.
Systematic or cumulative
• A systematic error is an error that will always have the same
magnitude and the same algebraic sign under the same
conditions.
• In most cases, systematic errors are caused by physical and
natural conditions that vary in accordance with known
mathematical or physical laws.
– Repeated
• Use of insufficiently accurate
computation equations (too few
terms in a series.)
• Failure to apply necessary
geometric reductions of
Systematic
errors are measurements.
caused by: • Failure to apply necessary

reductions of measurements due to


weather related conditions.
• Personal biases of the observer.
• Although some systematic errors are difficult to detect,
the surveyor must recognize the conditions that cause
such errors.
• The following list includes several examples of
systematic errors:

• Using incorrect temperature and/or pressure


observations.

• Not applying curvature and refraction constants.

• Using incorrect instrument heights and/or target


heights.
The effect of systematic errors can be minimized by:

• Properly leveling the survey instrument and targets.

• Balancing foresight and backsight observations.

• Entering the appropriate environmental correction factors


in the data collector.

• Entering the correct instrument heights, targets heights,


and prism offset in the data collector.

• Periodically calibrating the surveying equipment.


Random (Accidental) Errors

• A random error (or accidental error) is an error produced


by irregular causes that are beyond the control of the
observer.

• They do not follow any established rule which can be used to


compute the error for a given condition or circumstance of
the observation.

• The occurrence, magnitude, and algebraic sign of a random


error is truly random and cannot be predicted.
Random error

• For a single measurement, it is the error remaining in the measurement


after all possible systematic and gross errors are eliminated.

• An important characteristic of the random error is that if we repeat the


same measurement many times, the sum of all these errors tends to be
zero.

• This is yet another good reason to make extra measurements beyond the
required minimum.
– Occur randomly
—remain in the measurements after mistakes and systematic errors are
corrected.
– Magnitude and direction of the error are subject to chance
Source of
error

Natural/
Instrumen Personal/
environm
tal surveyor
ental
• Instrumental errors are caused by imperfections in the design,
construction, and adjustment of instruments and other equipment.
Instruments can be calibrated to overcome these imperfections.
Examples of instrument error are:

• Imperfect linear or angular scales.

• Instrument axes are not perfectly parallel or


perpendicular to each other.

• Misalignment of various part of the instrument.

• Optical distortions causing “what you see is not exactly


what you are supposed to see”
Source of surveying Error
1. Instrumental: Surveying errors may arise due to imperfection or
faulty instrument adjustment with which measurement is being taken.
•For example, a tape may be too long, or an angle measuring
instrument may be out of adjustment. Such errors are known as
instrumental errors.
2. Personal: Error may also arise due to wanting perfection of human
sight in observing and touch in manipulating instruments.
•For example, an error may occur in taking the level reading or
reading and angle on the circle of a theodolite. Such errors are
known as personal errors.
3. Natural: Error in surveying may also be due to variations
in natural phenomena such as temperature, humidity,
gravity, wind, refraction and magnetic declination.
√ If they are not properly observed while taking
measurements, the results will be incorrect.
• For example, a tape may be 20 meters at 200C, but
its length will change if the field temperature is
different.
Accuracy and precession
Accuracy and precision are two different, yet equally
important surveying concepts.

•Accuracy is the relationship between the value of a


measurement and the "true" or theoretically correct value of the
dimension being measured.
• Accuracy is the degree of conformity of a given
measurement with a standard value.

• Precision describes the refinement of the measuring process


and the ability to repeat the same measurement with
Thanks
Chapter summary question
1. Explain the deference between primary division of survey

2. What is surveying means

3. Write at least four functional classification of surveying

4. What are the purposes surveying?

5. Explain the difference between error and mistake

6. Differentiate source of error in surveying and type of error

7. Write and explain the processes of surveying work and principle of


surveying

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