University of Bahrain

Course: Manufacturing Processes (MENG 312)

Outline:
• Overview of machining technology
• Theory of chip formation
• Forces in metal cutting and merchant equation
• Power and energy relationships

Theory of Metal Machining

Instructor: Prof. Dr. G. Hussain

1
Department of Mechanical Engineering
 Material Removal Processes
A family of shaping operations, the common
feature of which is removal of material from a
starting workpart so the remaining part has the
desired geometry
 Mechanical Machining – material removal by a
sharp cutting tool, e.g., turning, milling, drilling
 Abrasive processes – material removal by
hard, abrasive particles, e.g., grinding
 Nontraditional processes - various energy
forms other than sharp cutting tool to remove
material
Mechanical Machining

(a) A cross‑sectional view of the machining

process, (b) tool with negative rake angle;
compare with positive rake angle in (a).

Shear
 Why Machining is Important
 Variety of work materials can be machined
 Most frequently used to cut metals
 Variety of part shapes and special geometric
features possible, such as:
 Screw threads
 Accurate round holes
 Very straight edges and surfaces
 Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish
 Disadvantages with Machining
 Wasteful of material
 Chips generated in machining are wasted
material, at least in the unit operation
 Time consuming
 A machining operation generally takes more
time to shape a given part than alternative
shaping processes, such as casting, powder
metallurgy, or forming
Machining in Manufacturing Sequence
 Generally performed after other manufacturing
processes, such as casting, forging, and bar
drawing
 Other processes create the general shape
of the starting workpart
 Machining provides the final shape,
dimensions, finish, and special geometric
details that other processes cannot create
 Machining Operations
 Most important machining operations:
 Turning
 Milling
 Drilling
 Other machining operations:
 Shaping and planing
 Broaching
 Sawing
 Cutting Tool Classification
1. Single-Point Tools
 One dominant cutting edge
 Point is usually rounded to form a nose radius
 Relative motion is achieved by rotating work
 Turning uses single point tools
2. Multiple Cutting-Edge Tools
 More than one cutting edge
 Motion relative to work is achieved by rotating
tool
 Drilling and milling use rotating multiple cutting-
edge tools
 Cutting Tools

A single‑point tool Multi‑point tool

Cutting Conditions (parameters) in Machining

Depth of cut

Speed
Feed
Cutting Conditions (parameters) in Machining
 Depth of cut – penetration of tool into
work piece

Upon combining these 3 parameters:

 material removal rate can be computed as
RMR = v f d (mm/min*mm/rev*mm)

where v = cutting speed; f = feed; d =

depth of cut
 Roughing vs Finishing
In production, several roughing cuts are usually
taken on the part, followed by one or two
finishing cuts
 Roughing - removes large amounts of material
from starting workpart
 Creates shape close to desired geometry,
but leaves some material for finish cutting
 High feeds and depths, low speeds
 Finishing - completes part geometry
 Final dimensions, tolerances, and finish
 Low feeds and depths, high cutting speeds
 Chip Thickness Ratio
to
r 
tc
where r = chip thickness ratio; to =
thickness of the chip prior to chip
formation; and tc = chip thickness after
separation
 Chip thickness after cut is always greater than
before, so chip ratio always less than 1.0
 Chip Formation

More realistic view of chip formation, showing shear zone rather

than shear plane. Also shown is the secondary shear zone resulting
from tool‑chip friction.
Four Basic Types of Chip in Machining
1. Discontinuous chip
2. Continuous chip
3. Continuous chip with Built-up Edge (BUE)
4. Serrated chip

Type of chip depends on material type and cutting

conditions
 Discontinuous Chip
 Brittle work materials
 Low cutting speeds
 Large feed and depth
of cut
 High tool‑chip friction
 Continuous Chip

 Ductile work materials

 High cutting speeds
 Small feeds and
depths
 Sharp cutting edge
 Low tool‑chip friction
Continuous with BUE
 Serrated Chip

 Semicontinuous - saw-
tooth appearance
 Cyclical chip forms with
alternating high shear
strain then low shear
strain
 Associated with difficult-
to-machine metals (Ti,
Ni or even steel) at high
cutting speeds
 Orthogonal Cutting (simplified model)

- Cutting tool is considered as a wedge

- The cutting edge is perpendicular to
cutting speed
Relation between r, α, φ
 Orthogonal Cutting- Shear Strain

Fig. Shear strain during chip formation: (a) chip formation depicted as a series of parallel plates sliding relative to
each other, (b) one of the plates isolated to illustrate the definition of shear strain based on this parallel plate
model, and(c) shear strain triangle used to derive Equation
 Example 21.1
Φ
mm.

α= 10 deg
1. Shear plane angle: Φ

2. Shear strain:
 Cutting Forces

Fig. Forces in metal cutting: (a) forces acting on the chip in orthogonal cutting and (b) forces acting on the tool
that can be measured.
Fc: Cutting force acting in direction of
F: Friction force b/w chip and rake face cutting speed
N: Normal to friction force F Ft: thrust force acting perpendicular to
Fs: Shear force applied by w/p on chip F c.
Fn: Normal to shear force Fs Ft increases with increase in chip
F & N are applied by tool; Fs and Fn are
thickness before cut (to)
applied by workpiece
These force can not be measured directly. because * Fc & Ft both increase as shear strength
the directions in which they are applied vary with of material increases
different tool geometries and cutting conditions. These forces acting on tool can be measured using
These need to be calculated using force diagram dynamometer, because their directions are known
 Relation between forces on chip and on tool
Forces on the tool are measured with dynamometer, and
can be used to determine forces on chip using the following
relations:

Use force diagram to calculate *Ref: book)

(a)

These Eqns can be used to determine shear stress and friction coefficient
 Relation between forces on chip and on tool
Friction force F and normal force N are correlated as:

Friction angle β is correlated with µ as:

Shear deformation on shear plane occurs due to Fs resulting into

shear stress τ given by:
(b)

As is the area of shear plane (c) Ls = to/SinØ

Shear stress τ is the level of stress required to perform cutting, thus τ = S

shear strength of material

The resultant R’ and R must be equal to maintain balance

 Merchant Equation
Merchant started with the definition of shear stress expressed in the form
of the following relationship, which combines Equations (a, b, c)
One of the important relationships in metal cutting was
derived by Merchant. It is based on the assumption of
orthogonal cutting, but its general validity extends to three-
dimensional machining

Derivating with respect to

ϕ,
and putting equal to zero

Merchant
Eqn strength of the work material is a constant, unaffected by strain rate, temperature,
shear
and other factors. But this assumption is violated in practical machining operations, so it
must be considered an approximate relationship rather than an accurate mathematical
equation.
Inferences from Merchant Equation
Fig. Effect of shear plane angle
ϕ : (a) higher ϕ with a resulting
lower shear plane area and
(b) smaller ϕ with a
corresponding larger shear plane
area. Note that the rake angle is
larger in (a), which
tends to increase shear angle
according to the Merchant
equation.
 Example 21.2

Solution:
Approximation of Turning by Orthogonal Cutting
 Machine Tools
A power‑driven machine that performs a
machining operation, including grinding
 Functions in machining:
 Holds workpart
 Positions tool relative to work
 Provides power at speed, feed, and depth
that have been set
 The term is also applied to machines that
perform metal forming operations
 Power and Energy Relationships
 A machining operation requires power
 The power to perform machining can be computed from:
Cutting power: Pc = Fc v
where Pc = cutting power; Fc = cutting force; and v =
cutting speed
* The gross power required to operate machine is always
greater than the power delivered to the process
Gross power: E is the efficiency of machine, usually 90%

Unit power or to = f ; w = d
specific energy: to and w are orthogonal cutting
parameters

Energy required to cut unit vol of metal. J/mm3

 Specific energy for different metals

Kcf = 0.75 when to has

units in mm
Kcf = 0.38 when to has
units of in.
If tool is dull– correction factor: 1.15 (finishing); 1.25 (roughing)
If to (or f) differs from 0.25, – correction factor is estimated as:
Cutting Temperature
Cutting Temperatures are Important
High cutting temperatures
1. Reduce tool life
2. Produce hot chips that pose safety hazards to
the machine operator
3. Can cause inaccuracies in part dimensions
due to thermal expansion of work material
 Temperature Rise: Analytical
Cook developed an empirical relation to know temperature rise
during cutting, considering many materials:

K= heat conducted/heat
stored
 Example 21.5

Solution:
Cutting speed must be converted to mm/s: v = 100ˣ1000/60 = 1666 mm/s
U = 1.038 J/mm3
 Measurement of temperature
Tool-Chip thermocouple is used for measuring
temperatures in machining
- One wire is linked to tool
- 2nd wire is linked to w/p
- Voltage difference is measured and then converted
into current and temp using appropriate relations

Potentiometer
 Relation between temperature and speed
By Trigger
where T = measured tool–chip interface temperature and v = cutting speed.
The parameters K and m depend on cutting conditions (other than v) and work material.
 Homework
Homework
Solve examples 21.3, 21.4

Solve problems 21.1 to 21.5 ; 21.18 to 21.22; 21.27

(3rd or 4th Ed of textbook)