UNIT-11 NERVOUS SYSTM

CONTENT
 TYPES OF NERVES –STRUCTURE AND
FUNCTIONS
 BRAIN AND CRANIAL NERVES
 SPINAL CORD
 MOTOR AND SENSORY PATHWAY OF
SPINAL CORD
 AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
 NERVOUS SYSTEM
INTRODUCTION-The
nervous system is a highly
complex network responsible
for coordinating the actions
and sensory information by
transmitting signals to and
from different parts of the
body. It is the major
controlling, regulatory, and
communicating system in
the body. The nervous
system has two primary
functions: communication
and control.
DEFINITION-The nervous
system is a network of
nerve tissue in the body
that controls and
coordinates the Body's
functions

CLASSIFICATION-

The nervous system can

be classified into two
major parts:
 central nervous
system (CNS)
 peripheral nervous
system (PNS).
Central Nervous System (CNS)
The CNS is the processing center of the nervous system. It consists
of the brain and the spinal cord. The CNS interprets incoming
sensory information and sends out instructions based on past
experiences and current conditions.
a. Brain
The brain is the most complex organ in the body and the center of
all conscious and unconscious actions. It controls thoughts,
memory, emotion, touch, motor skills, vision, breathing,
temperature, and every process that regulates the body.
The brain is divided into several major parts:
Cerebrum: Responsible for voluntary activities, reasoning,
planning, and problem-solving. It is divided into two
hemispheres.
Cerebellum: Coordinates muscle movements and maintains
balance.
Brainstem: Controls basic life functions like heartbeat,
breathing, and blood pressure.
 The Human Brain
On average, an adult brain weighs between 1.0 kg – 1.5 kg.
It is mainly composed of neurons – the functional unit of the
brain and nervous system. Recent estimates have
suggested that the brain contains anywhere between 86
billion to 100 billion neurons.
The brain is enclosed within the skull, which provides
frontal, lateral and dorsal protection. The skull consists of 22
bones, 14 of which form the facial bones and the remaining
8 form the cranial bones.
The Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) is a fluid that circulates within
the skull and spinal cord, filling up hollow spaces on the
surface of the brain.
Ependymal cells produce around 500mL of cerebrospinal
fluid.
 PARTS OF BRAIN-
CEREBRUM
The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain, responsible
for voluntary actions, cognitive functions, emotions, and
intelligence. It is divided into two hemispheres (left and
right), which are connected by a bundle of fibers called the
corpus callosum. Each hemisphere controls the opposite
side of the body and is further divided into four lobes, each
responsible for specific functions.
Lobes of the Cerebrum
Frontal Lobe
Function: Responsible for voluntary movement, problem-
solving, planning, reasoning, emotions, and speech (via
Broca's area).
Role: Controls executive functions, complex decision-
making, and motor control.
Parietal Lobe
Function: Processes sensory information such as touch,
temperature, and pain. It also manages spatial awareness
and navigation.
Role: Interprets sensations and integrates sensory input to
guide movement and perception.
Temporal Lobe
Function: Involved in processing auditory information and is
important for memory and understanding language (via
Wernicke’s area).
Role: Responsible for hearing, language comprehension,
and the formation of memories.

0ccipital Lobe
Function: Processes visual information from the eyes.
Role: Visual interpretation and recognition.
 Cerebellum
The cerebellum is located beneath the
cerebrum at the back of the brain. It is
primarily responsible for:
Coordination of Voluntary Movements:
Ensures smooth, coordinated muscle
movements by receiving information from the
sensory systems and other parts of the brain.
Balance and Posture: Regulates muscle tone
and balance, allowing for smooth movement.
Motor Learning: Important for learning motor
skills, such as playing an instrument or riding a
bike.
 Brainstem
The brainstem is located at the base of the
brain and connects the brain to the spinal cord. It
is made up of the midbrain, pons, and medulla
oblongata. The brainstem controls many
automatic functions essential for survival.
Functions of the Brainstem
Midbrain: Controls visual and auditory reflexes
and motor movements.
Pons: Bridges communication between different
parts of the brain and assists in regulating
breathing and sleep cycles.
Medulla Oblongata: Regulates vital functions
like heart rate, blood pressure, breathing, and
digestion. It also manages reflexes like coughing,
sneezing, and swallowing.
 Diencephalon
The diencephalon is located deep inside the
brain and includes key structures like the
thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus.
Each plays a unique role in maintaining bodily
functions.
Components of the Diencephalon
Thalamus
Function: Serves as the brain’s relay station,
processing and transmitting sensory
information (except smell) to the appropriate
regions of the cerebral cortex.
Role: Acts as a gateway for sensory and
motor signals to the cerebrum.
 Hypothalamus
Function: Maintains homeostasis by regulating
thirst, hunger, body temperature, and circadian
rhythms. It also controls the endocrine system
via the pituitary gland.
Role: Crucial for hormone regulation, emotional
responses, and maintaining the body’s internal
environment.
Epithalamus (including the Pineal Gland)
Function: Regulates sleep-wake cycles by
controlling the release of the hormone
melatonin.
Role: Influences circadian rhythms and
reproductive function.
 Functions of the Brain
Sensory Processing: Receives and processes sensory
input from the body and the environment.
Motor Control: Initiates and coordinates voluntary and
involuntary movements.
Cognitive Functions: Manages higher brain functions
such as thinking, planning, memory, and language.
Emotional Regulation: Controls emotional responses
and behavior.
Autonomic Functions: Regulates involuntary processes
such as heartbeat, digestion, and breathing.
Hormonal Control: Manages the release of hormones
that affect growth, metabolism, stress, and sexual
function.
Homeostasis: Maintains internal balance, such as
temperature and energy levels
b. Spinal Cord (45 cm,18 inch long)
The spinal cord is a long, thin, tubular
structure that extends from the
brainstem to the lower back. It acts as a
conduit for signals between the brain
and the rest of the body.
It also controls certain reflex actions
without involving the brain, like pulling
your hand away from a hot surface.
 Spinal Cord Structure
The human spine structure is a set of well-
balanced bones and tissues that serve many
purposes. There are 33 stacked bones that are
interlocked to form the spinal column. The bones
are called vertebrae and are divided into five
regions:

Cervical – 7 moveable vertebrae in the neck

Thoracic – 12 moveable vertebrae in the middle
of the back
Lumbar – 5 moveable vertebrae in the lower back
Sacrum – 5 fused vertebrae in the pelvic area
Coccyx – 4 fused vertebrae called the tailbone in
the upper buttocks area
The spinal cord has three main
functions:
• Sending motor commands: The
spinal cord carries motor
commands from the brain to the
body.
• Sending sensory
information: The spinal cord
carries sensory information from
the body to the brain.
• Coordinating reflexes: The
spinal cord coordinates reflexes
 Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
The PNS connects the CNS to the limbs and
organs. It is further divided into two sub-
systems: the somatic nervous system and
the autonomic nervous system.
a. Somatic Nervous System (SNS)
The somatic nervous system controls voluntary
movements and conveys sensory information
to the CNS. It consists of:
Sensory (afferent) neurons: Carry
information from sensory receptors (such as
skin, muscles, and joints) to the CNS.
Motor (efferent) neurons: Transmit
signals from the CNS to the skeletal muscles
to control voluntary movements.
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
The autonomic nervous system regulates
involuntary functions like heart rate, digestion,
respiratory rate, and glandular activities. It is
divided into:
Sympathetic Nervous System: Prepares
the body for "fight or flight" responses. It
increases heart rate, dilates pupils, and
redirects blood flow to muscles.
Parasympathetic Nervous System:
Promotes "rest and digest" activities, calming
the body by slowing the heart rate,
increasing intestinal and gland activity, and
relaxing muscles.
Enteric Nervous System:
Sometimes considered part of
the autonomic nervous
system, it controls digestive
functions, coordinating activity
in the gut independently from
the brain.
 NERVES
 Nerves are like cables that carry electrical
impulses between your brain and the rest of
your body. These impulses help you feel
sensations and move your muscles. They also
maintain certain autonomic functions like
breathing, sweating or digesting food.
 Nerve cells are also called neurons. Neurons are
present all over your body, especially in your
brain and spinal cord. Nerves, together with
brain and spinal cord, are the foundation of
NERVOUS SYSTEM.
TYPES OF NERVES
Two main types of nerves:
 Sensory nerves carry signals to your
brain to help you touch, taste, smell and
see.
 Motor nerves carry signals to your
muscles or glands to help you move and
function.
CRANIAL NERVES
CRANIAL NERVES -are a set of 12 nerves
that send electrical signals between your
brain and different parts of your head,
face, neck and torso. These signals help
you see, smell, taste, hear and move your
facial muscles.
Trigeminal largest cranial nerve.
Vagus nerve is longest cranial nerve.
The trochlear nerve is smallest cranial
nerve

Cranial nerve mnemonics to remember

the names of the nerves in order include:

Ooh, ooh, ooh to touch and feel very good

To remember cranial nerve
functions, the words in the
mnemonic start with:
S for sensory.
M for motor.
B for both
The word order mirrors the
numerical order of nerves one
through 12:
Some say marry money, but
my brother says big brains
matter more
 FUNCTION-
Olfactory nerve(CN I):-Providing the sense of
smell.
Optic nerve (CN II): Providing vision.
Oculomotor nerve (CN III): Opening and
moving your eyes and adjusting pupil width.
Trochlear nerve (CN IV): Looking down and
moving your eyes toward your nose or away from
it.
Trigeminal nerve (CN V): Providing sensations
in your eyes, most of your face and inside your
mouth. It also allows you to chew food.
Abducens nerve (CN VI): Moving your eyes
from left to right.
Facial nerve (CN VII): Controlling several facial muscles to
make facial expressions and providing the sense of taste in
part of your tongue.
Vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII): Providing the sense
of hearing and balance.
Glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX): Providing taste
sensations to part of your tongue and also helps in saliva
production
Vagus nerve (CN X): Regulating several automatic bodily
processes, including your digestion, blood pressure,
heart rate, breathing.
Accessory nerve or spinal accessory nerve (CN
XI): Controlling shoulder and neck movement.
Hypoglossal nerve (CN XII): Controlling tongue movement,
which plays a role in speaking, eating and swallowing
INTRODUCTION-.Neurons are the structural
and functional units of the nervous system,
and their structure and function are adapted
to quickly carry electrical signals over large
distances in the body.
The three main parts of a neuron are the
dendrites, cell body, and axon:
• Dendrites: Extended structures of the cell
body that carry impulses with the help of a
synapse
• Axon: A long, tubular structure that
transmits nerve impulses from the
dendrites to the synapse
• Cell body: The body of the neuron
• Cell Body (Soma): The central part of the
neuron, which contains the nucleus and most
of the cell's organelles. It is responsible for
maintaining the cell's health and processing
information received from other neurons.

• Dendrites: Branch-like extensions from the

cell body that receive signals from other
neurons and relay the information toward the
cell body.

• Axon: A long, slender projection that carries

electrical impulses away from the cell body
toward other neurons or target cells (like
muscles or glands). The axon may be covered
by a myelin sheath, which insulates the axon
and speeds up signal transmission.
• Axon Terminal (or Synaptic
Terminal): The end of the axon
that forms a junction (synapse) with
other neurons or target cells, where
neurotransmitters are released to
pass signals to the next cell.

• Synapse: The gap between the

axon terminal of one neuron and
the dendrite or cell body of another
neuron, across which
neurotransmitters (chemical
signals) are released to propagate
the signal.
 TYPES OF NEURONS
Neurons can be classified into different types
based on their structure, function, or the
direction of signal transmission.
Sensory Neurons (Afferent Neurons): These
neurons carry information from sensory
receptors (in the skin, eyes, ears, etc.) to the
central nervous system (brain and spinal cord).
They help detect stimuli such as light, sound,
temperature, and touch.
Motor Neurons (Efferent Neurons): These
neurons carry signals from the central nervous
system to muscles and glands to produce a
response. They are involved in controlling
voluntary and involuntary movements.
Interneurons: Found primarily in the brain
and spinal cord, these neurons connect
sensory neurons and motor neurons. They
play a critical role in processing information
and are involved in reflexes, cognition, and
higher-order brain functions.
FUNCTION OF NEURON-
Receiving Input: Dendrites collect signals
from sensory receptors or other neurons.
neurons.
Processing Information: The cell
body processes incoming information and
determines if the signal should be
transmitted further
.Transmitting Signals: The axon transmits
electrical impulses (action potentials) to the
axon terminal.
Releasing Neurotransmitters: When the
electrical signal reaches the axon terminal,
neurotransmitters are released into the
synapse to pass the signal to another neuron,
muscle, or gland.
Communication and Coordination: Neurons
work together in networks to coordinate
complex activities like muscle contraction,
sensory perception, learning, memory, and
decision-making.
MOTOR AND SENSORY PATHWAY OF SPINAL
CORD

The spinal cord's motor and sensory pathways are

essential for transmitting information between the
brain and the body. These pathways are organized
into tracts within the spinal cord, allowing for
precise communication.
Sensory Pathway (Ascending
Tracts)
Sensory pathways carry information from the body
(like touch, pain, and temperature) to the brain.
Dorsal Column-Medial
Lemniscal Pathway (DCML):
Function: Transmits fine
touch, vibration, and
proprioception (body position
sense).
Pathway:
First-Order Neurons:
Sensory receptors in the
skin, muscles, and joints
send signals via dorsal
root ganglia.
Second-Order Neurons:
Synapse occurs in the
medulla oblongata, where
these neurons decussate
(cross over).
Third-Order Neurons:
Carry signals from the
thalamus to the
somatosensory cortex for
processing
Spinocerebellar Tract:
Function: Transmits
information about muscle and
joint position (proprioception)
to the cerebellum for
coordination.
Pathway:
The Dorsal
Spinocerebellar Tract
carries proprioceptive
signals from lower limbs
and trunk.
The Ventral
Spinocerebellar Tract
carries signals from both
sides of the body but also
involves decussation.
Motor Pathway (Descending
Tracts)
Motor pathways transmit signals
from the brain to the spinal cord
and muscles, allowing for voluntary
and involuntary movements.
Corticospinal Tract:
Function: Controls voluntary,
precise movements of skeletal
muscles.
Pathway:
Upper Motor Neurons
(UMN): Originate in the
motor cortex, descend
through the brainstem, and
cross at the medullary
pyramids.
Lower Motor Neurons
(LMN): After synapsing in
the spinal cord’s ventral
horn, these neurons carry
the signal to the muscles.
Extrapyramidal Tracts:
Function: Controls
involuntary and automatic
movements (like balance,
posture, and muscle tone).
Main Tracts:
Reticulospinal Tract:
Helps with muscle tone
and reflexes.
Vestibulospinal
Tract: Controls balance
and posture by
adjusting muscles in
response to head
movements.
Rubrospinal Tract:
Involved in limb flexion
movements.
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a clear, colorless fluid that
surrounds and protects the brain and spinal cord. It
plays a critical role in cushioning the central nervous
system (CNS), removing waste, and maintaining a stable
environment for neural tissue.
Formation of CSF
CSF is primarily produced in
the choroid plexus located
within the lateral, third, and
fourth ventricles of the brain.
The choroid plexus is made
up of specialized ependymal
cells that filter blood, allowing
water, ions, and other small
molecules to form CSF.
Around 500 mL of CSF is
produced daily, though only
about 150 mL circulates at
any given time due to
constant reabsorption.
CSF flows in a specific path through the ventricles, around the brain
and spinal cord, and eventually into the bloodstream:
 Lateral Ventricles: CSF begins in the lateral ventricles (one in
each hemisphere).
 Interventricular Foramen (of Monro): CSF flows from the
lateral ventricles into the third ventricle.
 Third Ventricle: CSF then travels down into the fourth ventricle
via the cerebral aqueduct (Aqueduct of Sylvius).
 Fourth Ventricle: From the fourth ventricle, CSF moves out
through two lateral apertures (Foramina of Luschka) and one
median aperture (Foramen of Magendie) into the
subarachnoid space.
 Subarachnoid Space: CSF circulates around the brain and spinal
cord in the subarachnoid space, which lies between the arachnoid
and pia mater.
 Arachnoid Villi (Granulations): Finally, CSF is absorbed into the
bloodstream through arachnoid villi, which project into the
dural venous sinuses, particularly the superior sagittal sinus.
 CSF FLOW
 The CSF passes from the lateral ventricles to the third
ventricle through the interventricular foramen (of Monro).

 From the third ventricle, the CSF flows through the

cerebral aqueduct (of Sylvius) to the fourth ventricle.

 From the fourth ventricle, some CSF flows through a narrow

passage called the obex and enters the central canal of the
spinal cord.
 However, the majority of CSF passes through the apertures of
the fourth ventricle; the median aperture (of Magendie) and
two lateral apertures (of Luschka).

 From there, the CSF flows through the subarachnoid space of

the brain and spinal cord.

 It is finally reabsorbed into the dural venous sinuses through

arachnoid granulations.
 Functions of CSF
• Protection: Acts as a cushion for the brain
and spinal cord, protecting against impact
and injury.
• Buoyancy: Reduces the brain’s effective
weight, preventing it from compressing its
own blood vessels and neural tissue.
• Excretion of Waste: Helps remove
metabolic waste, drugs, and other
substances from the brain, transporting
them into the bloodstream.
• Homeostasis: Maintains a stable
environment by balancing ions and
regulating the pH of the CNS.