Computer Networks: A Systems Approach, 5e

Larry L. Peterson and Bruce S. Davie

Chapter 4
Advanced Internetworking

Copyright © 2010, Elsevier Inc. All rights Reserved 1

 Chapter 4
Problems
 How do we build a routing system that can
handle hundreds of thousands of networks and
billions of end nodes?
 How to handle address space exhaustion of
IPV4?
 How to enhance the functionalities of Internet?

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 Chapter 4
Chapter Outline
 Global Internet
 Multicast
 Mobile IP

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 Chapter 4
Chapter Goal
 Understanding the scalability of routing in the
Internet
 Discussing IPv6
 Understanding the concept of multicasting
 Discussing Mobile IP

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 Chapter 4
The Global Internet

The tree structure of the Internet in 1990

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 Chapter 4
The Global Internet

A simple multi-provider Internet

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 Chapter 4
Interdomain Routing (BGP)
 Internet is organized as autonomous systems
(AS) each of which is under the control of a
single administrative entity

 Autonomous System (AS)

 corresponds to an administrative domain
 examples: University, company, backbone network

 A corporation’s internal network might be a

single AS, as may the network of a single
Internet service provider

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 Chapter 4
Interdomain Routing

A network with two autonomous system

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 Chapter 4
Route Propagation
 Idea: Provide an additional way to hierarchically
aggregate routing information is a large internet.
 Improves scalability

 Divide the routing problem in two parts:

 Routing within a single autonomous system
 Routing between autonomous systems

 Another name for autonomous systems in the Internet is

routing domains
 Two-level route propagation hierarchy

Inter-domain routing protocol (Internet-wide standard)

Intra-domain routing protocol (each AS selects its own)

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 Chapter 4
EGP and BGP
 Inter-domain Routing Protocols
 Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP)

Forced a tree-like topology onto the Internet

Did not allow for the topology to become general
 Tree like structure: there is a single backbone and autonomous systems
are connected only as parents and children and not as peers
 Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)

Assumes that the Internet is an arbitrarily interconnected set of ASs.

Today’s Internet consists of an interconnection of multiple backbone
networks (they are usually called service provider networks, and
they are operated by private companies rather than the government)

Sites are connected to each other in arbitrary ways

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 Chapter 4
BGP
 Some large corporations connect directly to one
or more of the backbone, while others connect to
smaller, non-backbone service providers.
 Many service providers exist mainly to provide
service to “consumers” (individuals with PCs in
their homes), and these providers must connect
to the backbone providers
 Often many providers arrange to interconnect
with each other at a single “peering point”

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 Chapter 4
BGP-4: Border Gateway Protocol
 Assumes the Internet is an arbitrarily interconnected
set of AS's.
 Define local traffic as traffic that originates at or
terminates on nodes within an AS, and transit traffic
as traffic that passes through an AS.
 We can classify AS's into three types:

Stub AS: an AS that has only a single connection to one other AS;
such an AS will only carry local traffic (small corporation in
the figure of the previous page).


Multihomed AS: an AS that has connections to more than one other
AS, but refuses to carry transit traffic (large corporation at the top in
the figure of the previous page).


Transit AS: an AS that has connections to more than one other AS,
and is designed to carry both transit and local traffic (backbone
providers in the figure of the previous page).

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 Chapter 4
BGP
 The goal of Inter-domain routing is to find
any path to the intended destination that is
loop free – compliant to AS policies
 We are concerned with reachability than
optimality
 Finding path anywhere close to optimal is
considered to be a great achievement

 Why?

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 Chapter 4
BGP
 Scalability: An Internet backbone router must be able to
forward any packet destined anywhere in the Internet
 Having a routing table that will provide a match for any valid IP
address
 Autonomous nature of the domains
 It is impossible to calculate meaningful path costs for a path that
crosses multiple ASs
 A cost of 1000 across one provider might imply a great path but it
might mean an unacceptable bad one from another provid
 Issues of trust
 Provider A might be unwilling to believe certain advertisements
from provider B

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 Chapter 4
BGP
Each AS has:
 One BGP speaker that advertises:
 local networks
 other reachable networks (transit AS only)
 gives path information
 In addition to the BGP speakers, the AS has one or more
border “gateways” which need not be the same as the
speakers
 The border gateways are the routers through which
packets enter and leave the AS

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 Chapter 4
BGP
 BGP does not belong to either of the two
main classes of routing protocols (distance
vectors and link-state protocols)

 BGP advertises complete paths as an

enumerated lists of ASs to reach a
particular network (path vector protocol)

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 Chapter 4
BGP Example

Example of a network running BGP

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 Chapter 4
BGP Example
 Speaker for AS 2 advertises reachability
to P and Q
 Network 128.96, 192.4.153, 192.4.32, and
192.4.3, can be reached directly from AS 2.
 Speaker for backbone network then
advertises
 Networks 128.96, 192.4.153, 192.4.32, and
192.4.3 can be reached along the path <AS
1, AS 2>.
 Speaker can also cancel previously
advertised paths –negative
advertisements : withdrawn routes
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 Chapter 4
BGP Example - withdraw

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 Chapter 4
BGP Issues
 It should be apparent that the AS
numbers carried in BGP need to be
unique
 For example, AS 2 can only recognize
itself in the AS path in the example if no
other AS identifies itself in the same way
 AS numbers are 16-bit numbers assigned
by a central authority

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 Chapter 4
BGP Relations
 Provider – Customer
 Customer – Provider
 Peer

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Integrating Interdomain and Intradomain

Chapter 4
Routing

All routers run iBGP and an intradomain routing

protocol. Border routers (A, D, E) also run eBGP to
other ASs
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Integrating Interdomain and Intradomain

Chapter 4
Routing

BGP routing table, IGP routing table, and combined

table at router B

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 Chapter 4
Next Generation IP
(IPv6)

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 Chapter 4
Major Features
 128-bit addresses – 3.4 x 10 ^38 [1500/sq
ft]
 Multicast
 Real-time service
 Authentication and security
 Auto-configuration
 End-to-end fragmentation
 Enhanced routing functionality, including
support for mobile hosts
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 Chapter 4
IPv6 Addresses
 Classless addressing/routing (@CIDR)
 Notation: x:x:x:x:x:x:x:x (x = 16-bit hex
number)
 contiguous 0s are compressed:
47CD::A456:0124
 IPv6 compatible IPv4 address:

::FFFF:128.42.1.87
 Address assignment
 provider-based
 geographic

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 Chapter 4
IPv6 Addresses

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 Chapter 4
IPv6 Addresses

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 Chapter 4
IPv6 Header
 40-byte “base” header
 Extension headers (fixed order, mostly
fixed length)
 fragmentation
 source routing
 authentication and
security
 other options

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 Chapter 4
IPv6 Extension Headers
The nextHeader field of IPv6 fixed header points
to the first Extension Header and this first
extension header points to the second extension
header and so on

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 Chapter 4
Advanced Features
 Auto configuration
– Stateless : No servers
– Use link local address to make IPv6 address
 Source Directed Routing
– Can specify the topological segments to visit
– Assign anycast address -eg. all routers of a
backbone

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 Chapter 4
Internet Multicast

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 Chapter 4
Overview
 IPv4
 class D addresses
 demonstrated with MBone (Multicast
Backbone)
 uses tunneling
 Integral part of IPv6
 problem is making it scale

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 Chapter 4
Overview
 One-to-many
 Radio station broadcast
 Transmitting news, stock-price
 Software updates to multiple hosts

 Many-to-many
 Multimedia teleconferencing
 Online multi-player games
 Distributed simulations

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 Chapter 4
Overview
 Without support for multicast
 A source needs to send a separate packet with the
identical data to each member of the group

This redundancy consumes more bandwidth

Redundant traffic is not evenly distributed, concentrated near
the sending host
 Source needs to keep track of the IP address of each
member in the group

Group may be dynamic
 To support many-to-many and one-to-many IP
provides an IP-level multicast

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 Chapter 4
Overview
 Basic IP multicast model is many-to-many
based on multicast groups
 Each group has its own IP multicast address
 Hosts that are members of a group receive
copies of any packets sent to that group’s
multicast address
 A host can be in multiple groups
 A host can join and leave groups

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 Chapter 4
Overview
 Using IP multicast to send the identical
packet to each member of the group
 A host sends a single copy of the packet
addressed to the group’s multicast address
 The sending host does not need to know the
individual unicast IP address of each member
 Sending host does not send multiple copies of
the packet

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 Chapter 4
Overview
 IP’s original many-to-many multicast has
been supplemented with support for a form
of one-to-many multicast
 One-to-many multicast
 Source specific multicast (SSM)
 A receiving host specifies both a multicast
group and a specific sending host
 Many-to-many model
 Any source multicast (ASM)

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 Chapter 4
Overview
 A host signals its desire to join or leave a
multicast group by communicating with its local
router using a special protocol
 In IPv4, the protocol is Internet Group Management
Protocol (IGMP)
 In IPv6, the protocol is Multicast Listener Discovery
(MLD)

 The router has the responsibility for making

multicast behave correctly with regard to the host

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 Chapter 4
Overview
 The range of IPv4 multicast addresses is
224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255. The Ethernet
MAC addresses for these addresses are in the
range of 0100.5E00.0000 to 0100:5E7F:FFFF.
 32 (2^5 ) IP addresses map into each one of the
Ethernet addresses.
 Hosts use the Internet Group Management
Protocol (IGMP) protocol to advertise their
interest in receiving multicasts from a specific
group

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 Chapter 4
Multicast Routing
 A router’s unicast forwarding tables indicate for
any IP address, which link to use to forward the
unicast packet
 To support multicast, a router must additionally
have multicast forwarding tables that indicate,
based on multicast address, which links to use to
forward the multicast packet
 Unicast forwarding tables collectively specify a
set of paths
 Multicast forwarding tables collectively specify a
set of trees
 Multicast distribution trees

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 Chapter 4
Multicast Routing
 To support source specific multicast, the
multicast forwarding tables must indicate
which links to use based on the
combination of multicast address and the
unicast IP address of the source

 Multicast routing is the process by which

multicast distribution trees are determined

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 Chapter 4
Distance-Vector Multicast
 Each router already knows that shortest path to
source S goes through router N.
 When receive multicast packet from S, forward
on all outgoing links (except the one on which
the packet arrived), iff packet arrived from N.
 Eliminate duplicate broadcast packets by only
letting
 “parent” for LAN (relative to S) forward


shortest path to S (learn via distance vector)

smallest address to break ties

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 Chapter 4
Distance-Vector Multicast
Reverse Path Broadcast (RPB)
 Goal: Prune networks that have no hosts in group G
 Step 1: Determine of LAN is a leaf with no members in
G
 leaf if parent is only router on the LAN
 determine if any hosts are members of G using IGMP
 Step 2: Propagate “no members of G here” information
 augment <Destination, Cost> update sent to neighbors
with set of groups for which this network is interested in
receiving multicast packets.
 only happens when multicast address becomes active.

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 Chapter 4
Protocol Independent Multicast (PIM)

Shared Tree
Source
specific tree

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 Chapter 4
Protocol Independent Multicast (PIM)

Delivery of a packet along a shared tree. R1 tunnels the

packet to the RP, which forwards it along the shared
tree to R4 and R5.

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 Chapter 4
Inter-domain Multicast
Multicast Source Discovery Protocol (MSDP)

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 Chapter 4
Routing for Mobile Hosts
 Mobile IP

home agent

Router located on the home network of the mobile hosts

home address

The permanent IP address of the mobile host.

Has a network number equal to that of the home network and thus of
the home agent

foreign agent

Router located on a network to which the mobile node attaches itself
when it is away from its home network

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 Chapter 4
Routing for Mobile Hosts
 Problem of delivering a packet to the mobile node

 How does the home agent intercept a packet that is destined

for the mobile node?

Proxy ARP (Use gratuitous ARP to clear)

 How does the home agent then deliver the packet to the
foreign agent?

IP tunnel

Care-of-address

 How does the foreign agent deliver the packet to the mobile
node?

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 Chapter 4
Routing for Mobile Hosts
 Route optimization in Mobile IP
 The route from the sending node to mobile node can be
significantly sub-optimal
 One extreme example

The mobile node and the sending node are on the same
network, but the home network for the mobile node is on the far
side of the Internet
 Triangle Routing Problem

 Solution

Let the sending node know the care-of-address of the mobile
node. The sending node can create its own tunnel to the foreign
agent

Home agent sends binding update message

The sending node creates an entry in the binding cache

The binding cache may become out-of-date
 The mobile node moved to a different network

 Foreign agent sends a binding warning message

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 Chapter 4
IPv6 for Mobile Hosts
 Can acquire IPv6 using the inherent mechanisms, it
can do away with foreign agent.
 Rather than tunneling a packet to the mobile node at
its care-of address, an IPv6 node can send an IP
packet to the care-of-address with the home address
contained in a routing header.
 Other issues
– Managing the power consumption of mobile devices is
increasingly.
– A particularly challenging class of mobile networks is
sensor networks
– Continual advances in wireless technologies keep on
producing new challenges and opportunities for mobile
networking
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 Chapter
# Chapter
Summary

4 Subtitle
 We have looked at the issues of scalability in routing in
the Internet
 We have discussed IPV6
 We have discussed Multicasting
 We have discussed Mobile IP

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