ITNT3

23
Bandwidt
9-
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Utilization
 Bandwidth Utilization
 Multiplexing. The first method is called frequency-
division multiplexing (FDM). The second method is
called wavelength division multiplexing (WDM). The
third method is called time-division multiplexing (TDM).

 Spectrum spreading, in which we first spread the

bandwidth of a signal to add redundancy for the purpose
of more secure transmission before combining different
channels. The first method is called frequency hopping
spread spectrum (FHSS). The second method is called
direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS).
 1- MULTIPLEXING

Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the

simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a
single data link. As data and telecommunications use
increases, so does traffic. We can accommodate this
increase by continuing to add individual links each
time a new channel is needed, or we can install higher-
bandwidth links and use each to carry multiple signals.
Dividing a link into
channels
Categories of
multiplexing
 1-1 Frequency-Division Multiplexing

Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is an analog

technique that can be applied when the bandwidth of
a link (in hertz) is greater than the combined
bandwidths of the signals to be transmitted. In FDM,
signals generated by each sending device modulate
different carrier frequencies. These modulated signals
are then combined into a single composite signal that
can be transported by the link.
 Frequency-division
multiplexing

FDM is an analog multiplexing technique

that combines analog signals.
 Multiplexing Process

Next figure is a conceptual illustration of the

multiplexing process. Each source generates a
signal of a similar frequency range. Inside the
multiplexer, these similar signals modulate
different carrier frequencies ( f1, f2, and f3).
The resulting modulated signals are then
combined into a single composite signal that is
sent out over a media link that has enough
bandwidth to accommodate it.
FDM Process
 Demultiplexing Process

The demultiplexer uses a series of filters to

decompose the multiplexed signal into its
constituent component signals. The individual
signals are then passed to a demodulator that
separates them from their carriers and passes
them to the output lines. Next figure is a
conceptual illustration of demultiplexing
process.
FDM demultiplexing example
 Example 1

Assume that a voice channel occupies a bandwidth of 4

kHz. We need to combine three voice channels into a
link with a bandwidth of 12 kHz, from 20 to 32 kHz.
Show the configuration, using the frequency domain.
Assume there are no guard bands.

Solution
We shift (modulate) each of the three voice channels to
a different bandwidth, as shown in next figure.

6.12
Example 1
 Example 2

Five channels, each with a 100-kHz bandwidth, are to

be multiplexed together. What is the minimum
bandwidth of the link if there is a need for a guard band
of 10 kHz between the channels to prevent
interference?

Solution
For five channels, we need at least four guard bands.
This means that the required bandwidth is at least
5 × 100 + 4 × 10 = 540 kHz, as shown in next figure .

6.14
Example
2
 Example 3

Four data channels (digital), each transmitting at 1

Mbps, use a satellite channel of 1 MHz. Design an
appropriate configuration, using FDM.
Solution
The satellite channel is analog. We divide it into four
channels, each channel having a 250-kHz bandwidth.
Each digital channel of 1 Mbps is modulated so that
each 4 bits is modulated to 1 Hz. One solution is 16-
QAM modulation. Next figure shows one possible
configuration.

6.16
Example
3
 Analog
hierarchy
 Example 4

The Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) uses two

bands. The first band of 824 to 849 MHz is used for
sending, and 869 to 894 MHz is used for receiving. Each
user has a bandwidth of 30 kHz in each direction. The 3-
kHz voice is modulated using FM, creating 30 kHz of
modulated signal. How many people can use their cellular
phones simultaneously?.
Solution
Each band is 25 MHz. If we divide 25 MHz by 30 kHz, we
get 833.33. In reality, the band is divided into 832 channels.
Of these, 42 channels are used for control, which means
only 790 channels are available for cellular phone users.

6.19
 1-2 Wavelength-Division Multiplexing

Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is

designed to use the high-data-rate capability of fiber-
optic cable. The optical fiber data rate is higher than
the data rate of metallic transmission cable, but using
a fiber-optic cable for a single line wastes the
available bandwidth. Multiplexing allows us to
combine several lines into one.
 Wavelength-division
multiplexing

WDM is an analog multiplexing technique to

combine optical signals.
Although WDM technology is very complex, the basic
idea is very simple. We want to combine multiple light
sources into one single light at the multiplexer and do
the reverse at the demultiplexer. The combining and
splitting of light sources are easily handled by a prism.
Recall from basic physics that a prism bends a beam of
light based on the angle of incidence and the frequency.
Using this technique, a multiplexer can be made to
combine several input beams of light, each containing a
narrow band of frequencies, into one output beam of a
wider band of frequencies. A demultiplexer can also be
made to reverse the process. Next figure shows the
concept.
Prisms in wave-length division
multiplexing
 1-3 Time-Division Multiplexing

Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a digital

process that allows several connections to share the
high bandwidth of a link. Instead of sharing a portion
of the bandwidth as in FDM, time is shared. Each
connection occupies a portion of time in the link.
Next figure gives a conceptual view of TDM. Note
that the same link is used as in FDM; here, however,
the link is shown sectioned by time rather than by
frequency. In the figure, portions of signals 1, 2, 3,
and 4 occupy the link sequentially.
 TDM

TDM is a digital multiplexing technique for

combining several low-rate channels into one
high-rate one.
Note that in Figure we are concerned with only
multiplexing, not switching.
This means that all the data in a message from source 1
always go to one specific destination, be it 1, 2, 3, or 4.
The delivery is fixed & unvarying, unlike switching.
We also need to remember that TDM is, in principle, a
digital multiplexing technique.
Digital data from different sources are combined into
one timeshared link. However, this does not mean that
the sources cannot produce analog data; analog data can
be sampled, changed to digital data, and then
multiplexed by using TDM.
 Synchronous time-division multiplexing
In synchronous TDM, each input connection has an allotment
in the output even if it is not sending data.

In synchronous
TDM, the data rate
of the link is n
times faster, and
the unit duration is
n times shorter.
 Example 5

In Previous figure, the data rate for each input

connection is 1 kbps. If 1 bit at a time is multiplexed
(a unit is 1 bit), what is the duration of
1. each input slot,
2. each output slot, and
3. each frame?
 Example 5 (continued)

Solution
We can answer the questions as follows:
1. The data rate of each input connection is 1 kbps. This
means that the bit duration is 1/1000 s or 1 ms. The
duration of the input time slot is 1 ms (same as bit
duration).
2. The duration of each output time slot is one-third of the
input time slot. This means that the duration of the output
time slot is 1/3 ms.
3. Each frame carries three output time slots. So the
duration of a frame is 3 × (1/3) ms, or 1 ms. The duration of
a frame is the same as the duration of an input unit.
 Example 6

Next figure shows synchronous TDM with a data

stream for each input and one data stream for the
output. The unit of data is 1 bit. Find (a) the input bit
duration, (b) the output bit duration, (c) the output bit
rate, and (d) the output frame rate.
Example 6
 Example 7

Four 1-kbps connections are multiplexed together. A

unit is 1 bit. Find (1) the duration of 1 bit before
multiplexing, (2) the transmission rate of the link, (3)
the duration of a time slot, and (4) the duration of a
frame.
 Interleaving

TDM can be visualized as two fast-rotating

switches, one on the multiplexing side and the
other on the demultiplexing side. The switches
are synchronized and rotate at the same
speed, but in opposite directions. On the
multiplexing side, as the switch opens in
front of a connection, that connection has the
opportunity to send a unit onto the path.
This process is called interleaving. On the
demultiplexing side, as the switch opens in
front of a connection, that connection has the
opportunity to receive a unit from the path.
 Interleaving
Figure shows the interleaving process for the
connection shown in Figure.
In this figure, we assume that no switching is
involved and that the data from the first
connection at the multiplexer site go to the
first connection at the demultiplexer.
 Example 8

Four channels are multiplexed using TDM. If each

channel sends 100 bytes/s and we multiplex 1 byte per
channel, show the frame traveling on the link, the size
of the frame, the duration of a frame, the frame rate,
and the bit rate for the link.
Solution
The multiplexer is shown in next figure. Each frame
carries 1 byte from each channel; the size of each
frame, therefore, is 4 bytes, or 32 bits. The frame rate is
100 frames per second. The duration of a frame is
therefore 1/100 s. The link is carrying 100 frames per
second, and since each frame contains 32 bits, the bit
rate is 100 × 32, or 3200 bps.
Example 8
 Example 9

A multiplexer combines four 100-kbps channels using a

time slot of 2 bits. Show the output with four arbitrary
inputs. What is the frame rate? What is the frame duration?
What is the bit rate? What is the bit duration?
Solution
Next figure shows the output for four arbitrary inputs. The
link carries 50,000 frames per second since each frame
contains 2 bits per channel. The frame duration is
therefore 1/50,000 s or 20 μs. The frame rate is 50,000
frames per second, and each frame carries 8 bits; the bit
rate is 50,000 × 8 = 400,000 bits or 400 kbps.
The bit duration is 1/400,000 s, or 2.5 μs.
Example
9
 Empty Slots
Synchronous TDM is not as efficient as it could be. If a
source does not have data to send, the corresponding
slot in the output frame is empty. Figure shows a case in
which one of the input lines has no data to send and one
slot in another input line has discontinuous data.
The first output frame has three slots filled, the second
frame has two slots filled, and the third frame has three
slots filled. No frame is full. We learn in the next section
that statistical TDM can improve the efficiency by
removing the empty slots from the frame.
 Multilevel
multiplexing
Multilevel multiplexing is a technique used
when the data rate of an input line is a multiple of
others. For example, in Figure, we have two inputs
of 20 kbps and three inputs of 40 kbps. The first
two input lines can be multiplexed together to
provide a data rate equal to the last three. A
second level of multiplexing can create an output
of 160 kbps.
 Multiple-slot multiplexing
Multiple-Slot Allocation Sometimes it is more
efficient to allot more than one slot in a frame to a
single input line. For example, we might have an
input line that has a data rate that is a multiple of
another input. In Figure 6.20, the input line with a
50-kbps data rate can be given two slots in the
output. We insert a demultiplexer in the line to
make two inputs out of one.
 Pulse stuffing
Sometimes the bit rates of sources are not multiple
integers of each other. Therefore, neither of the above
two techniques can be applied. One solution is to make
the highest input data rate the dominant data rate and
then add dummy bits to the input lines with lower rates.
This will increase their rates. This technique is called
pulse stuffing, bit padding, or bit stuffing. The idea is
shown in Figure. The input with a data rate of 46 is pulse-
stuffed to increase the rate to 50 kbps. Now multiplexing
can
take place.
 Framing bits

If the multiplexer and the demultiplexer are not

synchronized, a bit belonging to one channel may be
received by the wrong channel. For this reason, one or
more synchronization bits are usually added to the
beginning of each frame. These bits, called framing
bits, follow a pattern, frame to frame, that allows
the demultiplexer to synchronize with the incoming
stream so that it can separate the time slots accurately.
In most cases, this synchronization information consists
of 1 bit per frame, alternating between 0 and 1, as
shown in Figure.
 Example 10

We have four sources, each creating 250 characters per

second. If the interleaved unit is a character and 1
synchronizing bit is added to each frame, find (1) the data
rate of each source, (2) the duration of each character in
each source, (3) the frame rate, (4) the duration of each
frame, (5) the number of bits in each frame, and (6) the
data rate of the link.
Solution
1. The data rate of each source is 250 × 8 = 2000 bps =
2kbps.
2. Each source sends 250 characters per second; therefore,
the duration of a character is 1/250 s, or 4 ms.
 Example 10 (Continued)

3. Each frame has one character from each source,

which means the link needs to send 250 frames per
second.
4. The duration of each frame is 1/250 s, or 4 ms.
5. Each frame carries 4 characters and 1 extra
synchronizing bit. This means that each frame is
4 × 8 + 1 = 33 bits.
6. The link sends 250 frames per second, and each
frame contains 33 bits. This means that the data rate
of the link is 250 × 33, or 8250 bps.
 Example 11

Two channels, one with a bit rate of 100 kbps and another
with a bit rate of 200 kbps, are to be multiplexed. How this
can be achieved? What is the frame rate? What is the frame
duration? What is the bit rate of the link?.
Solution
We can allocate one slot to the first channel and two slots to
the second channel. Each frame carries 3 bits. The frame
rate is 100,000 frames per second because it carries 1 bit
from the first channel. The frame duration is 1/100,000 s, or
10 ms. The bit rate is 100,000 frames/s × 3 bits per
frame, or 300 kbps.
Digital hierarchy
Table 1: DS and T line rates
 2 - SPREAD SPECTRUM

In some applications, we have some concerns that

outweigh bandwidth efficiency. In wireless
applications, stations must be able to share this
medium without interception by an eavesdropper and
without being subject to jamming from a malicious
intruder To achieve these goals, spread spectrum
techniques add redundancy;

6.49
 SPREAD SPECTRUM
Next figure shows the idea of spread spectrum.
Spread spectrum achieves its goals through two
principles:
1. The bandwidth allocated to each station needs to
be, by far, larger than what is needed. This allows
redundancy.
2. The expanding of the original bandwidth B to the
bandwidth Bss must be done by a process that is
independent of the original signal. In other words, the
spreading process occurs after the signal is created by
the source.
Spread
spectrum
2-1 Frequency hopping spread spectrum
(FHHS)
The frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)
technique uses M different carrier frequencies that are
modulated by the source signal. At one moment, the
signal modulates one carrier frequency; at the next
moment, the signal modulates another carrier
frequency. Although the modulation is done using one
carrier frequency at a time, M frequencies are used in
the long run.
The bandwidth occupied by a source after spreading is
BFHSS >> B.
 Frequency hopping spread spectrum
(FHSS)
Figure shows the general
layout for FHSS. A
pseudorandom code generator,
called pseudorandom noise
(PN), creates a k-bit pattern for
every hopping period Th.
The frequency table uses the
pattern to find the frequency to
be used for this hopping period
and passes it to the frequency
synthesizer. The frequency
synthesizer creates a carrier
signal of that frequency, and
the source signal modulates the
carrier signal.
 Frequency hopping spread spectrum
(FHSS)
Suppose we have decided to have eight hopping
frequencies. This is extremely low for real applications
and is just for illustration. In this case, M is 8 and k is 3.
The pseudorandom code generator will create eight
different 3-bit patterns. These are mapped to 8 different
frequencies in the frequency table (nexf figure).
The pattern for this station is 101, 111, 001, 000, 010,
011, 100. Note that the pattern is pseudorandom; it is
repeated after eight hoppings.
This means that at hopping period 1, the pattern is 101.
The frequency selected is 700 kHz; the source signal
modulates this carrier frequency. The second k-bit
pattern selected is 111, which selects the 900-kHz
carrier; the eighth pattern is 100, and the frequency is
600 kHz. After eight hoppings, the pattern repeats,
starting from 101 again.
Frequency selection in
FHSS
 FHSS cycles

Next figure shows how the signal hops around from

carrier to carrier. We assume the required
bandwidth of the original signal is 100 kHz.
 Bandwidth sharing
M different stations can use the same Bss if an
appropriate modulation technique such as multiple FSK
(MFSK) is used. FHSS is similar to FDM, as shown in next
figure . It shows an example of 4 channels using FDM
and 4 channels using FHSS. In FDM, each station uses
1/M of the bandwidth, but the allocation is fixed; in FHSS,
each station uses 1/M of the bandwidth, but the
allocation changes hop to hop.
 2-2 DSSS

The direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS)

technique also expands the bandwidth of the original
signal, but the process is different. In DSSS, we
replace each data bit with n bits using a spreading
code. In other words, each bit is assigned a code of n
bits, called chips, where the chip rate is n times that of
the data bit. Next figure shows the concept of DSSS.
DSSS
 DSSS example
In next figure, the spreading code is 11 chips having the
pattern 10110111000 (in this case). If the original signal
rate is N, the rate of the spread signal is 11N. This
means that the required bandwidth for the spread
signal is 11 times larger than the bandwidth of the
original signal. The spread signal can provide privacy if
the intruder does not know the code. It can also provide
immunity against interference if each station uses a
different code.
 Further Reading:-

 Data Communications and Networking ,

Forouzan, 5e , Chapter - 6, PP 155 .