Amrutvahini College of Engineering, Sangamner

Faculty Orientation Workshop

on
Radiation and Microwave Theory
 Radiation and Microwave
Theory
Programme: UG Class:-B.E
Course
(E&TC) Details
Academic Year :2022-23
Programme in (Semester-I)
E&TC/ Electronics
Engineering

Course Code: (Theory) Course : Radiation and

Microwave Theory
Corresponding Lab Course Code : Lab Course Name: Lab Practice I
(RMT+CC)
Teaching Scheme: Examination Scheme:

Practic
Theory Tutorial Theory Lab
al
(hrs/week) (hrs/ (hrs/ Insem Endsem Oral
week) week)

3 hrs 2 hrs ---- 30 70 25

2
Unit-II: Transmission Lines and
Waveguides
Contents: 6 hrs
Introduction to Microwave, Short history of microwave
engineering, Frequency band definitions, advantages, and
applications of microwave (overall applications). Introduction to
wave guides, Advantages of waveguides, Comparison of waveguides
and co-axial cables, Rectangular waveguide, modes of propagation
in waveguide, Cut off frequency, Dominant mode, Waveguide
characteristics and parameters, Excitation in waveguides, Coupling
methods (probe, slot, loop), Application of re-entrant cavity,
Coupling of cavities, Striplines: Structural details, types and
applications.

Text Book:
 1.Samuel Liao, “Microwave Devices and Circuits”, Third
Edition, Person
Reference Books:
 1. M.Kulkarni, “Microwave And RADAR Engineering”, Fifth
Edition, Umesh Publication.

3
 Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering
11/28/24 4
 Radiation and Microwave Theory CO-PO Mapping
Mapping
Course On completion of the course, learner will with
PO MAPPING
Outcome be able to - Syllabus
Unit
Apply the fundamentals of electromagnetic to 1 P01, P02,P03,P04,
derive free space propagation equation and P05,P06,
CO1 distinguish various performance parameters of
antenna.
Identify various modes in the waveguide. Compare: 2 P01, P02,P03,P04,
coaxial line, rectangular waveguides & striplines P05
CO2 and identify applications of the same.

Explore construction and working of principles 3 P01, P02,P03,P04,

CO3 passive microwave devices/components. P05

Explore construction and working of principles 4 P01, P02,P03,P04,

CO4 active microwave devices/components. P05

Analyze the structure, characteristics, operation, 5 P01, P02,P03,P04,

equivalent circuits and applications of various P05,PO6
CO5 microwave solid state active devices

CO6 Know the various microwave systems, devise set 6 P01, P02,P03,P04,
ups of microwave measurement devices and P05,PO8
Identify the effect of radiations on environmental 5
sustainability.
Course Objectives and Course
Outcome of Unit-II
Objectives:
To understand advantages and applications of microwaves

To differentiate between waveguide and transmission lines

To understand Fundamental theory of rectangular waveguide

 To know about cavities and resonators

Course Outcome:CO2

Identify various modes in the waveguide. Compare: coaxial line,

rectangular waveguides & striplines and identify applications of the
same.
 Outline
Advantages and applications of microwaves

Fundamental theory of rectangular waveguide

Difference between waveguide and coaxial cable

 Introduction to striplines
Radiation and Microwave Theory

 Unit I: Fundamental Theory of Radiation and Radiating Elements

 Unit II: Transmission Lines and Waveguides
 Unit III: Passive Microwave Components
 Unit IV: Active Microwave Components
 Unit V: Solid State Microwave Devices
 Unit VI: Microwave Systems and Microwave Measurement
Techniques
Transmission Lines and
Waveguides
 Introduction to microwaves

• Microwaves are a form of electromagnetic radiation with

wavelengths ranging from about one meter to one
millimeter; with frequencies between 300 MHz (1 m) and
300 GHz (1 mm)

• Microwave is an electromagnetic radiation of short

wavelength

• Frequencies in the microwave range are often referred to

by their IEEE radar band designations: S, C, X, Ku , K,
or Ka band
 History of microwaves
• James Maxwell (1831-1879) :unified all previous results in
4 equations and predicted the existence of electromagnetic
waves
• Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (1857-1937): Experimentally
confirmed Maxwell’s predictions
• Guglielmo Marconi (1874 -1937): Transmitted information
on experimental basis at microwave frequencies
• George C. Southworth(1930): Marconi’s experiment carried
out at commercial basis.
• World war II (1945):Radar developed
• K.Kurz and Barkhausen(1920):Developed BKO oscillator
• A.W.Hull(1921):Developed Magnetron device
• 1960:Telephone communication
• 1990:Satellite TV transmission,Microwave oven,Personal
communication system ,cellphones,medicine,industry
Frequency spectrum
Frequency spectrum
Frequency spectrum
Microwave Bands Designation
Band Frequency Wavelength(cm)
(GHz)
L 1 to 2 30.0 to 15.0
S 2 to 4 15 to 7.5
C 4 to 8 7.5 to 3.8
X 8 to 12 3.8 to 2.5
Ku 12 to 18 2.5 to 1.7
K 18 to 27 1.7 to 1.1
Ka 27 to 40 1.1 to 0.75
Millimeter 40-300 0.75-0.1
 Advantages of Microwaves

• Increased Bandwidth Availability

• Improved Directive properties

• Less fading effect and more reliable

• Lower power requirement

• Transparency Property of Microwaves

 Applications of Microwaves
Commercial Applications
• Microwave ovens
• Drying machines
•Rubber / Plastics / Chemical /Food process industry
•Biomedical Applications
Electronic Warfare and Counter Warfare
Telecommunication
•Space communication
•Telemetry communication for railway
Radars
Object identification
 Waveguides
• A hollow metallic tube of uniform cross section
for transmitting electromagnetic waves by
successive reflections from the inner walls of the
tube is called waveguide.
Waveguides
 Waveguides
Waveguides, like transmission lines, are structures used
to guide electromagnetic waves from point to point.
However, the fundamental characteristics of waveguide
and transmission line waves (modes) are quite different.
The differences in these modes result from the basic
differences in geometry for a transmission line and a
waveguide.
Metal waveguides normally take the form of an enclosed
conducting metal pipe. The waves propagating inside
the metal waveguide may be characterized by reflections
from the conducting walls.
 Transmission line and Wave
guide -1
Transmission line Wave guide
Two or more conductors Metal waveguides are
separated by some typically one enclosed
insulating medium (two- conductor filled with an
wire, coaxial, micro strip, insulating medium.
etc.)

Normal operating mode is Operating modes are TE or

the TEM or quasi-TEM TM modes (cannot support
mode (can support TE and a TEM mode).
TM modes but these modes
are typically undesirable).
Transmission line and Wave guide -2
Transmission line Wave guide

No cutoff frequency for the Must operate the waveguide

TEM mode. Transmission at a frequency above the
lines can transmit signals respective TE or TM mode
from DC up to high cutoff frequency for that
frequency. mode to propagate.

Significant signal Lower signal attenuation at

attenuation at high high frequencies than
frequencies due to conductor transmission lines.
and dielectric losses.
 Transmission line and Wave guide -3
Transmission line Wave guide

Small cross-section transmission Metal waveguides can

lines (like coaxial cables) can transmit high power levels.
only transmit low power levels The fields of the
due to the relatively high fields propagating wave are
concentrated at specific spread more uniformly
locations within the device over a larger cross-
sectional area than the
small cross-section
transmission line.
Large cross-section transmission Large cross-section (low
lines can transmit high power frequency) waveguides are
levels. impractical due to large
size and high cost.
 Coaxial Cable
Here we present a “case study” of one particular transmission line, the coaxial cable.

b  r ,
Find C, L, G, R

For a TEMz mode, the shape of the fields is independent of frequency, and hence we
can perform the calculation using electrostatics and magnetostatics.

We will assume no variation in the z direction, and take a length of one meter in the z
direction in order top calculate the per-unit-length parameters.

24
 Coaxial lines
It is most widely used transmission line preferred for high
frequency application.
Coaxial cable is unbalanced transmission line as outer
conductor is normal at ground potential.
Dominant mode is TEM mode although higher order modes do
exist at high frequencies.
Lowest order modes are as follows
TE11 [λc ≈ π (b+a)] and TM01 [λc ≈ 2 (b - a)]
Average circumference of coaxial line should be less than the
operating wavelength so that higher order mode interference
can be prevented.
• AS EM fields are confined in the insulator between the inner
and outer conductor, coaxial lines are non radiating.

• Well operated up to 40GHz due to development of precision

connectors for smaller diameter coaxial cables.

• Generally 50Ω coaxial lines are preferred for minimum

attenuation.

• For low power transmission, coaxial cables can operate up to

40GHz.

• High power transmission they can be employed only up to

34GHz.
 Coaxial Cable (cont.)

Observation:

2  0  r
C [F/m]
b
ln  
a
0  r  b 
L ln   [H/m]
2 a

LC  0 0  r  r 

This result actually holds for any transmission line.

27
 Coaxial Cable (cont.)

L
For a lossless cable: Z 0 
C

2  0  r 0  r  b 
C [F/m] L ln   [H/m]
b 2 a
ln  
a

r 1  b 
Z 0 0 ln   []
 r 2  a 

0
0  376.7303 []
0
28
 Rectangular Waveguide

The walls of the waveguide are made of ideal

conductor and the medium filling the waveguide is
ideal dielectric.
 Assumptions
The waveguide is infinitely long, oriented along
the z-axis, and uniform along its length.

The waveguide is constructed from ideal

materials. [perfectly conducting pipe (PEC) is
filled with a perfect insulator (lossless
dielectric)].

 Fields are time-harmonic.

 Types of modes in Waveguide
Transverse Magnetic (TM) wave: Here only
magnetic field is transverse to the direction of
propagation and the electric field is not purely
transverse.
(i.e.) Ez ≠ 0, Hz = 0.

Transverse Electric (TE) wave: Here only the

electric field is purely transverse to the direction
of propagation and the magnetic field is not
purely transverse.
(i.e.) Ez = 0, Hz ≠ 0.
 Analysis of TM modes
From the physical understanding of reflection of waves from
parallel conducting boundaries we expect a standing wave kind of
behavior in x and y directions and a travelling wave kind of
behavior in z direction.
In any case, we expect a wave phenomenon in x,y,z direction which
can be properly represented by putting a negative sign in front of the
constants A2, B2 and β2 .
Instead of negative sign if the positive sign was used the solutions
will have real exponential functions which would not represent
the wave phenomenon.
 Analysis of TM mode

where, h2 is transverse propagation constant given by-

 Observations for TMmn Modes
 The fields existing in the discrete electric and magnetic
field pattern called modes of waveguide.
 All field components vary sinusoidal in x and y
directions.
 All transverse fields go to zero if either m or n is zero.
 Both the indices m and n have to be non-zero for
existence of the TM mode.
 TMm0 and TM0n modes can not exist.
 Consequently, the lowest order mode which can exist is
mode TM11 mode.
 Analysis of TE Mode
For TE mode, Ez = 0 and only Hz is present, all 4
transverse components of the field can be obtained from Hz
only.
In the case of TM mode, the wave equation was solved for
Ez which was tangential to all the four walls of the
waveguides. We therefore had boundary conditions on Ez.
In the TE case however the independent component Hz is
tangential to the walls of the waveguide which do not
impose any boundary conditions on Hz.
 Analysis of TE Mode

Where, h2 is transverse propagation constant given by-

 Analysis of TE Mode
The fields for the TE modes have similar behavior to the fields of
the TM modes i.e. they exist in the form of discrete pattern.

They have sinusoidal variations in x and y directions, indices m

and n represent number of half cycles of the field amplitudes in
x and y direction respectively.

Unlike TM mode both indices m and n need not be non-zero

for the existence of the TE mode.

TE00 mode cannot exist but TEm0 and TE0n modes can exist.
The lowest order mode for the TE case therefore is TE10 and
TE01 .
Phase constant of TE and TM
mode

For both TEmn and TMmn modes the modal phase

constant β is given by:

For the mode to be travelling β has to be a real

quantity.

If β becomes imaginary then the fields no more

remain travelling but become exponentially decaying.
Cut-off Frequency of TE and TM mode

The frequency at which β changes from real to

imaginary is called the cut-off frequency of the
mode. At cut-off frequency, therefore β = 0 gives,
Cut-off Frequency of TE and TM
mode
The cut-off frequencies for lowest TM and TE
modes i.e. TM11, TE10 and TE01 can be obtained as:
Cut-off Frequency of TE and TM mode

Since by definition we have a > b we get the

frequencies as-

We can make an important observation that, if at all

the electromagnetic energy travels on a rectangular
waveguide its frequency has to be more than the
lowest cut-off frequency i.e. fc of TE10 mode.

As the order of the mode increases the cut-off

frequency also increases.
Cut-off wavelength of TE and TM mode

 The very first mode that propagates on the rectangular waveguide is TE 10

mode and therefore this mode is called the dominant mode of the
rectangular waveguide.

 The cut-off wavelength is given by

2
c 
2 2
 m  n
   
 a  b

For dominant mode , λc=2a.

For propagation of wave in the waveguide
λ < λc or f > fc
 Field Pattern
The visualization of the modal fields is important for
identifying regions from where fields can be tapped
efficiently by the probes.
The field probes are devices which can induce fields inside
a waveguide or extract energy from the fields propagating
inside the waveguide.
One can see from the modal field expression that the fields
are periodic over one guided wavelength λg along the length
of the waveguide.
So essentially one has to develop a three dimensional
picture of the fields only over a block of λg.
Field pattern
Field pattern
Field pattern
 Waveguide Parameters
Guide Wavelength Wave Impedance
• It is defined as the • It is defined as ratio of
distance travelled by the strength of electric field
wave in order to in one transverse
undergo a phase shift direction to the strength
of 2π radians. of magnetic field along
• It is related to phase other transverse
constant by the relation direction.
λg = 2π / β
 Waveguide Parameters
Guide Wavelength Wave Impedance
• It is defined as the • It is defined as ratio of
distance travelled by the strength of electric field
wave in order to in one transverse
undergo a phase shift direction to the strength
of 2π radians. of magnetic field along
• It is related to phase other transverse
constant by the relation direction.
λg = 2π / β
Waveguide Parameters

Guide Wavelength Wave Impedance

• It is defined as the • It is defined as ratio of
distance travelled by the strength of electric field
wave in order to in one transverse
undergo a phase shift direction to the strength
of 2π radians. of magnetic field along
• It is related to phase other transverse
constant by the relation direction.
λg = 2π / β
Waveguide Parameters
Phase Velocity Group Velocity
The phase velocity is The group velocity of
defined as the velocity a wave is defined as the
with which the wave rate at which the wave
changes phase in terms propagates through the
of the guide wavelength waveguide.
Vp = λg * f Vg = dω / dβ

The product of phase and group velocities is equal to

square of the velocity of light. i.e. vp * vg = c2
 Excitation of waveguides
• Waveguide coupling is a process in which the part of
electromagnetic energy associated with one waveguide is
shared with another waveguide.

• There are three waveguide coupling methods: probe

coupling, loop coupling, and aperture or slot coupling.

• Directional couplers and power dividers are examples of

aperture or slot coupling in waveguides.
 Excitation of waveguides
Probe coupling
• Probe antenna insertion is usually made perpendicular to
the length of the waveguide, at a distance equal to the
quarter wavelength from the shorted end of the
waveguide.

• Probe coupling is intended for coupling to the electric

field
Excitation of waveguides
Probe coupling
 Excitation of waveguides
Loop coupling

• Loop coupling enables coupling to the magnetic field in

the waveguide. In loop coupling, a conductor is inserted
into the waveguide and bends into a loop
Excitation of waveguides
Loop coupling
 Excitation of waveguides
Slot or aperture coupling

• When coupling is required between two waveguides of

different cross-sectional areas, aperture coupling is
preferred

• Directional couplers and power dividers are examples of

aperture coupling in waveguides
Excitation of waveguides
Example 1
Example 3
 Reentrant cavities

Fig : Reentrant Cavities (a) Coaxial cavity (b) Radial Cavity (c) Tunable Cavity
(d) Toroidal Cavity (e) Butterfly cavity
 Rectangular Cavity Resonators
• Constructed from closed section of waveguide.
• Waveguide is a type of transmission line.

• Open ended W/G gives radiation loss so W/G resonators

are usually short circuited at both the ends, thus forming a
closed box or cavity.

• E&H energy is stored within the cavity and power can be

dissipated in metallic walls as well as dielectric filling the
cavity.
• Coupling to the resonator can be a small aperture or small
probe or loop.
 Example 4
• Find the resonant frequencies of the dominant mode of an
air filled rectangular cavity of dimensions 5cm x 4cm x
2.5cm.The dominant mode for rectangular cavity resonator
is TE101

• Given a = 5 cm, b = 4 cm, d = 2.5 cm

Resonant frequency of TE and TM modes is given by

fr = 6.71 GHz
Circular resonator
 Reentrant cavities

Fig : Reentrant Cavities (a) Coaxial cavity (b) Radial Cavity (c) Tunable Cavity
(d) Toroidal Cavity (e) Butterfly cavity
 Reentrant cavities
• Reentrant cavities are designed for klystron tubes and
microwave triodes
• For cavity resonator: Low Inductance and capacitance
to maintain resonance at operating frequency
• Reduced resistance losses
• Reentrant cavity: The cavity resonator with metallic
boundaries extended into the interior of the cavity
• Supports infinite number of resonant frequencies
Reentrant cavities
 Coupling to Reentrant cavities
• Loop coupling

• Iris coupling
 STRIPLINE
• Also known as “sandwich line” – evolved from “flattened” coaxial
transmission line
• The geometry of a stripline is shown in Figure 3.1.
• Consist of a; (1) top ground plane, (2) bottom ground plane and (3) a
center conductor
• W is the width of thin conducting strip (centered between two wide
conducting ground planes).
• b is the distance of ground planes separation.
• The region between the ground planes is filled with a dielectric.
• Practically, the centered conductor is constructed of thickness b/2.

71
 STRIPLINE

Figure 3.1: Stripline transmission line (a) Geometry (b) Electric and
magnetic field lines. 72
 STRIPLINE

Figure 3.2: Photograph of a stripline circuit assembly.

73
 STRIPLINE
• The phase velocity is given by:

v p 1  0 0 r
c r
Thus, the propagation constant of the stripline is:

   0 0 r
vp
  r k0

74
 Types of Stripline

Microstrip Line

Parallel Stripline

Coplanar Stripline

Slot line
Comparison
Thank You