• Every organism must exchange materials with its environment

• Exchanges ultimately occur at the cellular level by crossing the

plasma membrane

Quick Question:

1. How the material is transported in unicellular organism?

2. Why the multicellular organism require a transport system?

➢ Single-celled organisms can gain oxygen and glucose
directly from their surroundings and the molecules
can diffuse to all parts of the cell quickly due
to short diffusion distances.

➢ Larger multicellular organisms, however, are made

up of many layers of cells, meaning that the time
taken for substances such as glucose and oxygen to
diffuse to every cell in the body would be far too long
• The diffusion distances involved are too great
• Large organisms often have high energy
requirements, so the delivery of reactants for
metabolism needs to happen quickly at the same
time removal of waste.
Surface area to volume ratio:
As aAs
As agrows,
cellgrows,
acellcell grows, it's surface
it's surface
it'sarea/volume
area/volume
surface ratio At
ratio decreases.
some point of the cells growth,
decreases. At some point
area/volume ratio
the surface area/volume
ofbecomes
ratio the cells growth,
so small that it is
decreases.
unable supply At
thetosurface some
area/volume
raw materials to
point
ratioof
its volume
becomes
thesocells
smallgrowth,
that it is unable to
thesupply
surface raw materials to
its volume
area/volume
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To achieve maximum rate of transportation for multicellular organism their exchange
surfaces are connected to a mass transport system, for example-

• The digestive system is connected to the circulatory system

• The lungs are connected to the circulatory system

Mass transport is the bulk movement of gases or liquids in one direction, usually via a
system of vessels and tubes.

The circulatory system in mammals is a well-studied example of a mass transport system;

the one-way flow of blood within the blood vessels carries essential nutrients and gases to
all the cells of the body.

Mass transport systems help to

• Bring substances quickly from one exchange site to another.
• Maintain diffusion gradients at exchange sites and between cells and their fluid
surroundings.
• Ensure effective cell activity by supplying reactants and removing waste products.
• Direct bathes the internal organ
Comparing single and double loop circulation
Double Circulation in Mammals
In a double circulation,

circulation
pulmonary
blood passes through the
heart twice in one
complete circuit.

• Pulmonary circulation

circulation
systemic
• Systemic circulation
Double Circulation – Systemic
Circulation
• It is the circulation of blood

circulation
pulmonary
around the body.
• Oxygenated blood leaves the
left side of the heart and is
distributed by arteries to all
parts of the body (except the
lungs).

circulation
systemic
• Veins carry deoxygenated
blood from all parts of the
body to the right side of the
heart.
Double Circulation – Pulmonary
Circulation
• Blood flows from the heart to the

circulation
pulmonary
lungs, and then back to the heart.
• Blood goes from the heart to lungs
via the pulmonary artery.
• Blood returns to the heart from the
lungs via the pulmonary vein.

circulation
systemic
Double Circulation – Advantages
• Blood entering the lungs is at a lower pressure compared to blood
leaving the heart.
• Blood can flow more slowly through the lungs
• More time for blood to absorb oxygen before returning to the heart

• Heart can pump the blood at high pressure to the rest of the body.
• Distributes oxygenated blood to the body tissues more quickly
• Maintain high metabolic rate in mammals
1B 2: The role of the Blood
Recall the following:

1. What are the main components of blood?

2. Name the four major blood types.

3. What is the function of red blood cells?

4. What is the role of white blood cells in the body?

5. What is the purpose of platelets in blood?

Composition of Blood

red blood
cells
platelet

white
white blood cell
blood cell (phago-
(lympho- cyte)
cyte)
Think, Pair and share:

1. Describe the function of plasma in blood and its role in transporting nutrients
and waste products.

2. Compare and contrast the structure and function of red blood cells and white blood cells.

3. Describe structure of platelets.

Blood Plasma

• A pale yellowish liquid

• About 90% water and 10% mixture of dissolved substances.

• The amounts of the various dissolved substances in the blood plasma are
kept relatively constant.

• Blood plasma transports the dissolved substances and blood cells around the
body.
Blood Plasma: Dissolved Substances
• Soluble proteins:
• Fibrinogen and prothrombin: for blood clotting
• Antibodies: for fighting diseases

• Dissolved minerals (occurring as ions):

• Hydrogen carbonates, chlorides, sulfates
• Phosphates of calcium, sodium and potassium

• Food substances: glucose, amino acids, fats, vitamins

• Excretory products: urea, uric acid, carbon dioxide

• Hormones (e.g. insulin)

Blood Serum
• When storing blood, blood-clotting factors (fibrinogen and
prothrombin) are removed to prevent the blood from clotting during
storage.
• Blood plasma with its blood-clotting factors removed is known as blood
serum.
Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes)
• Quantity: ≈5 million red blood cells per mm3 of blood.

• As fetus RBC is formed in the liver

• Produced by the bone marrow.

• Lifespan: 120 days

• Worn-out cells are destroyed in the spleen.

• Hemoglobin obtain from destroyed cells are brought to the liver and broken down to
form:
• bile pigments
• Iron (stored in liver)
Structure and Function of Red Blood Cells
Structure Function
Contains Hemoglobin combines reversibly with
haemoglobin oxygen, enabling red blood cells to transport
oxygen from lungs to all cells in the body.
Circular, flattened Increases cell’s surface area to volume ratio
biconcave disc for faster absorption and release of oxygen.
Absence of Allows cell to contain more haemoglobin
nucleus
Flexible Can turn bell-shaped when squeezing
through blood vessels smaller than its
diameter.
Role of the Bone Marrow
• Location: spongy red tissue found in the center of bones

• The marrow of the vertebrae, ribs and pelvis contain stem cells:

• Can divide many times to produce different cells

• Many blood cells are produced throughout one’s life as the cells have a limited
lifespan.
• Red blood cells: 120 days
• Platelets: 6 days
• White blood cells: 1 day or less
White Blood Cells (Leucocytes)
• Quantity: ≈4000-11000 per mm3 of blood

• Produced by the bone marrow.

• Lifespan: 1 day or less

• Size: usually larger than red blood cells

• Features:
• Colourless: does not contain haemoglobin
• Contains nucleus
• Can move, change its shape and squeeze through walls of capillaries
Blood Platelets (Thrombocytes)
• Not true cells

• Membrane-bound fragments of large cells called megakaryocytes

• From bone marrow cells

• 150000- 400000 platelets per mm3

• Involved in blood clotting

Transport Function of the Blood

The following are carried in solution in blood plasma:

Digested food:
• Transported from blood capillaries in the small intestine to all parts of the body

Excretory products:
• Nitrogenous waste – urea, uric acid, creatinine, removed from the body as
blood flows through the kidneys
• Carbon dioxide from cell respiration enters the blood as hydrogencarbonate
ions, and converted to carbon dioxide in the lungs and expelled when we exhale
Transport Function of the Blood
The following are carried in solution in blood plasma:

Hormones
• Transported from production glands to the parts of the body which require them

Heat
• Produced in respiring body tissues
• Main heat production is in the muscles and liver
• Blood distributes the heat throughout the body, maintaining a uniform body temperature
Role of shunt vessels in maintaining temperature.
Precapillary sphincters
Answer this.

Describe the role of blood in maintaining homeostasis in the body.

Gas Exchange in the Body
O2
CO2
alveolus
O2
(in lung)
CO2

HCO3- O2 (oxyhaemoglobin)

veins
arteries
capillaries
HCO3- O2 (oxyhaemoglobin)

C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O + energy

Tissue cells
Transport of Oxygen in the Blood

As blood passes
Oxygen combines
through tissues
reversibly with
As blood passes with low oxygen
haemoglobin to Blood transports
through the lungs, concentration, the
form an unstable oxyhaemoglobin
oxygen diffuses oxyhaemoglobin
compound, to all tissues of the
from the alveoli releases its
oxyhaemoglobin, body.
into the blood. oxygen, which
which is bright red
diffuses into the
in colour.
cells.
Transport of Oxygen in the Blood
O2

haemoglobin oxyhaemoglobin
(purplish-red) (bright red)

O2
Think, pair and share:

Evaluate the significance of the sigmoid shape of the oxygen dissociation curve in facilitating
oxygen transport in the body.
Work in groups to:

Analyze how changes in pH and temperature can affect the oxygen dissociation curve.
Hypoxemia: oxygen deficiency in arterial blood.
Human Adaptation to High Altitudes
• At high altitudes, oxygen concentration in the atmosphere is low.
• Body produces more red blood cells, by the action of hormone
erythropoietin released from kidneys thus increasing the haemoglobin
content per unit volume of blood.
• More oxygen can be transported to tissue cells per unit time.
• This is known as acclimatisation.
Human Adaptation to High Altitudes
• Long-distance runners often train at high altitudes for several months
before a race.
• Amount of haemoglobin in the blood increases
• When running the race at lower altitudes, their bodies can carry oxygen
more efficiently.
• Runners can run for longer periods.
Fetal hemoglobin

•The hemoglobin of a developing fetus has a higher affinity for oxygen than adult
hemoglobin.

•This is vital as it allows a fetus to obtain oxygen from its mother's blood at the placenta
• Fetal hemoglobin can bind to oxygen at low pO2
• At this low pO2 the mother's hemoglobin is dissociating with oxygen

•On a dissociation curve graph, the curve for fetal hemoglobin shifts to the left of that for
adult hemoglobin
• This means that at any given partial pressure of oxygen, fetal hemoglobin has
a higher percentage saturation than adult hemoglobin

•After birth, a baby begins to produce adult hemoglobin which gradually replaces fetal
hemoglobin
• This is important for the easy release of oxygen in the respiring tissues of a
more metabolically active individual
Fetal hemoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen than adult hemoglobin. This means that at any given pO 2, fetal
hemoglobin will have a higher percentage saturation than adult hemoglobin
Think, pair and share:

Explain the process of blood clotting and its importance in wound healing.
Protective Function: Blood Clotting
• Also known as blood coagulation or thrombosis.
• Blood exposed to air will form a clot
• Function of the clot:
• Seal the wound and prevent excessive loss of blood
• Prevent foreign particles from entering the blood
• Some people suffer from haemophilia, a hereditary disease, where their
blood-clotting mechanism is impaired. The person can bleed to death with
slight injuries.
The Blood Clotting Process:

Serotonin causes smooth muscles of the blood vessel to contract.

damaged tissue releases thromboplastin

releases platelets (enzyme)

prothrombin Thromboplastin thrombin

(inactive) + calcium ions (active)

thrombin insoluble fibrin threads,

fibrinogen
form mesh to trap blood cells

This forms a clot. Special proteins in the structure of

the platelets contract, making the clot tighter rough
to form a scab to protect the skin and vessels
underneath as they heal.
Blood clots and atheroma's

Atheroma's can increase the risk of blood clotting

• The plaque deposit of an atheroma can rupture through the
endothelium of the artery, damaging the endothelium and forming a rough
surface
• The damage to the endothelium triggers the process of thrombosis.

•The combination of atheromas and blood clotting can be dangerous to the health of
an individual
• The blood clot that forms can completely block the artery
• Blood clots reduce blood flow which restricts the movement of
oxygen in the blood, therefore reducing respiration of the
surrounding cells, tissues and organs
• The blood clots can dislodge and travel to different blood vessels in the body; if
they reach the brain this can cause a stroke to occur

•Blood clotting can also lead to

• Heart attack
• Deep vein thrombosis
Stroke

A stroke is a sudden loss of brain function in a localized area due to disruption of

blood flow to the brain.

• A blood clot leads to a blockage of the arteries supplying the brain

• This leads to reduced blood flow and delivery of oxygen to the cells of the
brain, reducing respiration
• Cells in the affected part of the brain cannot produce ATP and their function is
reduced

A stroke caused by a blood clot is called an ischemic stroke

Heart attack

Coronary heart disease (CHD) is caused by the formation of atheromas and blood clots in
the coronary arteries
• The coronary arteries flow over the surface of the heart, supplying the heart muscle itself
with blood

Blood flow to certain areas of the heart is restricted and delivery of oxygen to the
affected cells decreases, thereby reducing respiration in these cells
• The cells can no longer produce ATP
• The cells can no longer contract, reducing the force generated by the heart when it
beats
• The cells can die, causing permanent damage to heart tissue

This leads to a myocardial infarction, also known as a heart attack

Complete heart failure may occur if large areas of the heart are affected by blood clots; this
can be fatal

Symptoms of a heat attack include

• Chest pain
• Shortness of breath
• Sweating
Atheroma and blood clots in the coronary arteries can restrict
blood flow to the heart muscle, leading to a heart attack
Deep vein thrombosis
•If a blood clot forms in a vein deep inside the body it is known as deep vein
thrombosis (DVT)

•This is most common in the veins of the legs

•Causes include
• Prolonged inactivity
• Old age
• Some medications
1B 3: Circulation in the blood
vessels
Recall
1. What are the three types of blood vessels?

2. What is the function of arteries?

3. What is the function of veins?

4. What is the function of capillaries?

5. What is the largest artery in the human body?

6. What is the largest vein in the human body?

7. What is the purpose of blood vessels in the circulatory system?

8. What are the smaller arteries and veins called as?

9. Brainstorming: Draw a flow diagram to show direction of blood flow through different types of
blood vessels.
The Circulatory System – Blood Vessels
Arteries
• Blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart
• Branches to form arterioles
Arterioles
• Arteries branch to form smaller arterioles
• Branches to form capillaries
Blood capillaries
• Microscopic blood vessels found between cells.

Venules
• When leaving an organ / tissue, capillaries unite to form venules

Veins
• Venules join together to form veins
• Carry blood back to the heart
Comparison of blood vessels
Recall:

1. What is the innermost layer of blood vessels called?

2. What is the outermost layer of blood vessels called?

3. What is the middle layer of blood vessels called?

Develop your concept in peer learning:

1. Explain how the structure of arteries is related to their function.

2. Explain how the structure of capillaries allows for the exchange of substances between
blood and tissues.

3. Explain how the structure of veins is related to their function.

4. Based on your understanding draw a labelled diagram of artery and vein representing
different layers.
Blood Vessels – Arteries
➢ Function

• Receives blood directly from the heart and carries it away from the heart
towards the cells in the body.

• Almost all arteries carry oxygenated blood except the pulmonary artery
(carry deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs) and umbilical
artery (carries deoxygenated blood from the fetus to the placenta during
pregnancy).

➢ Structure

Artery walls consist of three layers

• The endothelium, sometimes referred to as the tunica intima

The endothelium is one cell thin and lines the lumen of all blood
vessels.
It is very smooth and reduces friction for free blood flow.
In arteries the endothelium is highly folded, enabling it to expand
under high pressure
• Smooth muscle and elastic tissue, sometimes referred to as the tunica media. This layer is thick in arteries

The layer of muscle cells strengthen the arteries so they can maintain high pressure

It also enables them to constrict and narrow the lumen for reduced blood flow
• Contraction of the muscle causes constriction of the lumen
• This is useful for diverting blood flow away from certain locations e.g. away from the digestive system
during exercise

• The outer wall, sometimes referred to as the tunica adventitia, or tunica externa
• Contains the structural protein collagen
• Collagen is a strong protein that protects blood vessels from damage by over-stretching.

• A pulse is present in arteries as they stretch to accommodate an increased volume of blood with each heart beat
Features Importance

Thick, elastic Withstand high blood pressure of the blood as it is forced out of the
walls heart. The wall is much thicker in arteries nearest the heart.

Elastic fibers Enables artery wall to stretch and recoil, pushing the blood in spurts
along the artery and maintain the pressure. This gives rise to the
pulse.
Constricts and Achieved through contraction and relaxation of elastic muscles in the
dilates arterial wall.
When it constricts: lumen becomes narrower, less blood flows
through per unit time.
When it dilates: lumen becomes wider, more blood flows through per
unit time.
Blood Vessels – Capillaries

➢ Function : Food substances diffuse out, while waste materials diffuse into capillaries. Approx 7um in diameter.
➢ Structure

• A large number of capillaries branch between cells.

• Substances can diffuse between the blood and cells quickly as there is a short diffusion distance.

• Capillaries have a lumen that is very narrow in diameter. This forces the blood to travel slowly which
provides more time for diffusion to occur.

• The wall is only one cell thin; this reduces the diffusion distance for oxygen and carbon dioxide between
the blood and the tissues of the body.

• The cells of the wall have gaps called pores which allow blood plasma to leak out and form tissue fluid.

• White blood cells can combat infection in affected tissues by squeezing through the pores in the capillary
walls
 Characteristics Importance
Walls made up of a single layer Microscopic capillaries can be found between the cells of
of flattened endothelial cells almost all tissues.

Endothelium is partially Quick diffusion of substances into and out of capillaries

permeable

branching network Provide large surface area for exchange of substances.

(capillary bed) Blood pressure lowers, slowing down the flow of blood and
giving more time for the exchange of substances
Tissue fluid through capillary fenestrations (pores)
Blood Vessels – Veins
➢ Function: transports blood to the heart. Most veins carry deoxygenated blood except the pulmonary vein ( carry
oxygen rich blood from the lungs to the heart) and the umbilical vein ( carry oxygenated blood from the placenta
into the fetus during pregnancy).

They receive blood that has passed through capillary networks, so the blood pressure is very low

➢ Structure:
• Veins contain the same layers as arteries but in different proportions.

• The smooth muscle and elastic layer is much thinner in veins. There is no need for a thick muscular layer as veins
don't have to withstand high pressure

• A larger lumen helps to ensure that blood returns to the heart at an adequate speed.

• The rate of blood flow is slower in veins but a larger lumen means the volume of blood delivered per unit of time is
equal to that of arteries.

• A pulse is absent in veins due to the increased distance from the heart
 Characteristics Importance

thinner, less elastic walls Low blood pressure, where blood flows slowly and smoothly.

presence of valves Internal valves prevent backflow of blood. Known as semi-lunar

valves due to their half-moon shape.

large lumen Lowers blood pressure to allow blood to flow slowly

• Movement of blood is assisted by the action of skeletal muscles on the veins.

Predict the effects of damaged or weakened veins on blood flow and overall circulatory health.
Varicose veins, also known as
varicosities, occur when your
veins become enlarged, dilated,
and overfilled with blood.

Varicose veins typically appear

swollen and raised, and have a
bluish-purple or red color.
Analyze: the relationship between blood pressure and blood velocity in arteries, veins, and capillaries.

1. Blood flows in
the same
direction as the
decreasing
pressure gradient
2. The rate, or
velocity, of blood
flow varies
inversely with the
total cross-
sectional area of
the blood vessels.
As the total cross-
sectional area of
the vessels
increases, the
Checkpoint
1B 4: The Mammalian Heart
The Heart – Structure
External structure:
• Surrounded by a pericardium, which is made up of two layers of
membrane

• Inner membrane: in contact with the heart

• Between the two membranes: fluid to help reduce friction when the
heart is beating
The Heart – Structure
Internal structure:
• 4 chambers:
• Upper chambers: atria (singular: atrium)
• Lower chambers: ventricles

• Divided down the middle into left and right halves by a muscular wall called the median septum

• Prevents the mixing of deoxygenated blood and oxygenated blood.

Specialized muscle:

• Called as cardiac muscles which can carry on contraction regularly without getting fatigued.

• Continuous supply of oxygenated blood is through coronary artery.

• Contain myoglobin, a respiratory pigment having strong affinity for oxygen than hemoglobin and can
store oxygen for respiration needed to generate energy to keep the heart working regularly.
Label based on prior
knowledge
 superior vena aortic arch
cava
pulmonary
artery
pulmonary pulmonary
arch vein

right atrium left atrium

semi-lunar
inferior vena
valves
cava
chordae bicuspid valve
tendineae
left ventricle
right ventricle

median septum
Route of the Blood in the Heart
1. Return of deoxygenated blood from the rest of the body to the heart
• Blood from the head, neck and arms and chest enter via the
superior vena cava
• Blood from the lower parts of the body (except lungs) enter via the
inferior vena cava
• Enters the right atrium
2. Right atrium contracts when its full: blood goes into the right ventricle
• Tricuspid valve opens (consists of 3 flaps, attached to the walls by
chordae tendinae)
• Atrium has thin muscular wall as it receives blood at low pressure
from vena cava.
• Pressure in the right atrium is higher than the pressure in the right
ventricle.
3. Right ventricle contracts:

• Blood pressure in right ventricle causes the tricuspid valve (AV valve) to close, preventing backflow of
blood into the atrium.

• Chordae tendinae (tendinous cords) prevent valve flaps from reverting into the atrium.

• Blood leaves right ventricle via the pulmonary arch.

• Pulmonary arch divides into two pulmonary arteries, carrying deoxygenated blood to the capillaries in
the lung.

• Semi-lunar valves in pulmonary arch prevent backflow of blood into the right ventricle.
4. Blood enters the lungs:
• Blood is slowed down by the branching of the artery into a capillary
network.
• Gaseous exchange occurs

5. Oxygenated blood from the lungs return to the heart:

• Blood enter via the pulmonary vein
• Blood enters the left atrium.
• The pressure is relative low after passing through capillaries in the lungs.

6. Left atrium contracts, blood goes into the left ventricle:

• Bicuspid valve opens (consists of 2 flaps)
• Pressure in the left ventricle is lower than the pressure in the left
atrium.
 7. Left ventricle contracts:
• Bicuspid valve closes to prevent the backflow of blood into the left
atrium.
• Blood leaves left ventricle via the aortic arch or aorta.
• Semi-lunar valves in aortic arch prevent backflow of blood into the left
ventricle.

8. Blood in aorta is distributed to the rest of the body:

• Aortic arch have branches to direct the blood to specific areas of the
body
• Blood entering the aorta is at a very high pressure
• Two small coronary arteries emerge from the aortic arch, to bring
oxygen and nutrients to the heart muscles
The Cardiac Cycle
The cardiac cycle is the control and coordination of the heart
There are three stages of the cardiac cycle:
• Atrial Systole
• Ventricular Systole
• Diastole

• Cardiac muscle differs from the muscle in all other areas of the body in that it is myogenic.
This means that it naturally contracts and relaxes.
• The individual heart muscle cells cannot be allowed to contract at their own natural
rhythms. If they did, parts of the heart would contract out of sequence with other parts.
The cardiac cycle would become disordered, and the heart would stop working as a pump.
• The heart has its own built-in controlling and coordinating system which prevents this
happening.
 Week 8

• The Cardiac
Cycle
1B: 5 Atherosclerosis
Notes:
• There are a number of diseases of the heart, or cardiovascular diseases, that can affect blood vessels in different
ways.

• Atherosclerosis, also known as hardening of the arteries, is caused primarily by damage to the
delicate endothelium of an artery followed by an inflammatory response
◦ It is a progressive disease, meaning that it can worsen over time.

• In a healthy artery the endothelium is smooth and unbroken to reduce friction between blood and the inside if the
artery.

• The steps involved in atherosclerosis are

◦ Damage, e.g. by high blood pressure, is caused to the endothelium
▪ Damage can also occur as a result of high levels of certain types of cholesterol, smoking, diabetes,
obesity, and old age
◦ An inflammatory response occurs and white blood cells, such as macrophages, accumulate in the
damaged area
◦ Lipids and cholesterol clump together with the macrophages under the endothelium and form fatty
streaks
▪ This is one of the first signs of atherosclerosis
◦ Platelets can also add to the fatty deposit
▪ Platelets are fragments of red blood cells involved in the blood clotting process
◦ The collection of cholesterol, lipids, macrophages and platelets accumulate under the endothelium
▪ The structure forms a plaque known as an atheroma
• The atheroma narrows the lumen of the artery, reducing and restricting blood flow and thereby raising blood
pressure
• Over time the plaque can calcify and harden, reducing elasticity of the artery wall and further increasing
blood pressure.
What Is an Aneurysm?

when the pressure of blood passing through has forced a weakened part of the artery to
balloon outward or when the blood vessel wall is weakened for a different reason.

Aneurysms can happen in any blood vessel, but they usually form in the belly or chest
portions of aorta -- the main blood vessel that carries blood from your heart -- or in
arteries that nourish your brain.

The most serious threat of an aneurysm is that it will burst and cause a stroke or massive bleeding,
which can be life-threatening. A large aneurysm can affect your circulation and lead to blood clots.
Raised blood pressure: due to plaque
formation on artery wall.