Chapter 12

Multiple Access

12.1 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Figure 12.1 Data link layer divided into two functionality-oriented sublayers
The two main functions of the data link layer are data link control and media access
control.
1.The first, data link control or LLC, deals with the design and procedures for
communication between two adjacent nodes: node-to-node communication.
• Provides framing, flow and error control for reliable transmission of frames between
nodes.
• 2 protocols: HDLC and PPP
2.The second function of the data link layer is media access control, or how to share the link,
i.e., resolving access to the shared media.

On dedicated link, PPP is

enough and we do not need
the lower sublayer but on
mobile communication
channel is not dedicated due
to same channel occupation
by a distant user.

12.2
 HDLC vs PPP Protocols

PPP stands for Point-to-Point

HDLC stands for High-level Data
1. Protocol.
Link Control.

2. HDLC is a bit-oriented protocol. PPP is a byte-oriented protocol.

HDLC is implemented by Point-

PPP is implemented by Point-to-
3. to-point configuration and also
Point configuration only.
multi-point configurations.

Dynamic addressing is not While in this Dynamic addressing

4.
offered by HDLC. is offered.

HDLC is not compatible with PPP is compatible with non-Cisco

5.
non-Cisco devices. devices.

While PPP provide link

HDLC does not provide link
6. authentication using various
authentication.
protocols.

12.3
 Figure 12.2 Taxonomy of multiple-access protocols discussed in this chapter

When nodes or stations are connected and use a common link, called a
multipoint
or broadcast link, we need a multiple-access protocol to coordinate access to the
link, e.g., 2 people don’t speak at the same time.

12.4
 12-1 RANDOM ACCESS
• In random access or contention methods, no station is
superior to another station and none is assigned the
control over another.
• No station permits, or does not permit, another station
to send.
• At each instance, a station that has data to send uses a
procedure defined by the protocol to make a decision
on whether or not to send.
Topics discussed in this section:
ALOHA- (which lacks carrier sensing)
Carrier Sense Multiple Access
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance
12.5
 Figure 12.3 Frames in a pure ALOHA network
• ALOHA, the earliest random-access method, was developed at the University of
Hawaii in early 1970.
• It was designed for a radio (wireless) LAN, but it can be used on any shared
medium.
• User can send data at any time.
• When a station sends data, another station may attempt to do so at the same
time. The data from the two stations collide and become garbled.

12.6
 Figure 12.6 Frames in a slotted ALOHA network
• Divide the time into slots and force the station to send only at the beginning
of the time slot.
• There is still the possibility of collision if two stations try to send at the
beginning of the same time slot but chance of collision is reduced
• When a collision occurs, each device involved waits for a random time before
attempting to resend its data in a new time slot.
• Increases the delay for users due to wait until beginning of slot.

12.7
 Figure 12.8 Space/time model of the collision in CSMA
• The chance of collision can be reduced if a station senses the medium before
trying to use it.
• The possibility of collision still exists because of propagation delay; when a
station sends a frame, it still takes time for the first bit to reach every station and
for every station to sense it.
• In fig, if C does not sense the transmission of B at t2, collision exists.

12.8
 Figure 12.12 Collision of the first bit in CSMA/CD
• CSMA method does not specify the procedure following a collision
• CSMA/CD augments the algorithm to handle the collision.
• A station monitors the medium after it sends a frame to see if the transmission
was successful. If so, the station is finished. If, however, there is a collision, the
frame is sent again.

12.9
 Figure 12.16 Timing in CSMA/CA
• Used in wireless networks.
• Collisions are avoided through the use of CSMA/CA's three strategies: the
interframe space, the contention window, and the acknowledgments.
• Defer if channel is busy. When an idle channel is found, the station does not
send immediately. It waits for a period of time called the interframe space
(IFS).
• If after the IFS time the channel is still idle, the station can send, but it still
needs to wait a time equal to the contention time.
• The contention window is an amount of time divided into slots. The number of
slots in the window changes by binary exponential strategy.
• It is set to one slot the first time and then doubles each time the station
cannot detect an idle channel after the IFS time.

12.10
 Note

In CSMA/CA, the IFS can also be used to

define the priority of a station or a
frame.
A station that is assigned a shorter IFS
has a higher priority.

12.11
 12-2 CONTROLLED ACCESS

In controlled access, the stations consult one another

to find which station has the right to send. A station
cannot send unless it has been authorized by other
stations. We discuss three popular controlled-access
methods.

Topics discussed in this section:

Reservation
Polling
Token Passing

12.12
 Figure 12.18 Reservation access method

• The stations that have made reservations can send their data frames after
the reservation frame.
• If there are N stations in the system, there are exactly N reservation
minislots in the reservation frame.
• Each minislot belongs to one station. When a station needs to send a data
frame, it makes a reservation in its own minislot.

In fig, in the first interval, only stations 1, 3, and 4 have made reservations. In
the second interval, only station 1 has made a reservation

12.13
 Figure 12.19 Select and poll functions in polling access method
• Polling works with topologies in which one device is designated as a primary
station and the other devices are secondary stations.
• The primary device controls the link; the secondary devices follow its
instructions.
• If the primary wants to receive data, it asks the secondaries if they have anything
to send; this is called poll function. If the primary wants to send data, it tells the
secondary to get ready to receive; this is called select function.

12.14
Figure 12.20 Physical topology in token-passing access method

• When a station has some data to send, it waits until it receives the token from
its predecessor.
• It then holds the token and sends its data. When the station has no more data
• to send, it releases the token, passing it to the next logical station in the ring.

12.15
 12-3 CHANNELIZATION

Channelization is a multiple-access method in which

the available bandwidth of a link is shared in time,
frequency, or through code, between different stations.
In this section, we discuss three channelization
protocols.

Topics discussed in this section:

Frequency-Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
Time-Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

12.16
 Figure 12.21 Frequency-division multiple access (FDMA)

12.17
 Note

In FDMA, the available bandwidth

of the common channel is divided into bands
that are separated by guard bands.
FDMA is an access method in the data link
layer while FDM is at physical layer.
The data link layer in each station tells its
physical layer to make a bandpass signal from
the data passed to it.

12.18
 Figure 12.22 Time-division multiple access (TDMA)

12.19
 Note
• In TDMA, the bandwidth is just one channel that is
timeshared between different stations.
• TDM is a physical layer technique that combines
the data from slower channels and transmits them
by using a faster channel.
• TDMA is an access method in the data link layer
which tells its physical layer to use the allocated
time slot.

12.20
 Note

In CDMA, unlike FDMA one channel

carries all transmissions simultaneously
and like TDMA no time sharing.

12.21
 Figure 12.23 Simple idea of communication with code
• Any station, that wants to receive data from one of the other
three, multiplies the data on the channel by the code of the
sender.
• Similar codes are 1 after multiplication.

12.22
 Chapter 13

Wired LANs: Ethernet

13.23 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 •13-1In IEEE
1985, STANDARDS
the Computer Society of the IEEE started a project, called Project

802, to set standards to enable intercommunication among equipment from a

variety of manufacturers.
• Project 802 is a way of specifying functions of the physical layer and the data

link layer of major LAN protocols.

• IEEE 802 is a family of IEEE standards for LAN (802.3, 802.11x), PAN

(802.15 like Bluetooth), and MAN (802.16).

• The IEEE has subdivided the data link layer into two sublayers: logical link

control (LLC) and media access control (MAC).

13.24
 Figure 13.1 IEEE standard for LANs

13.25
 Figure 13.3 Ethernet evolution through four generations

13.26
 13-2 STANDARD ETHERNET

The original Ethernet was created in 1976 at Xerox’s Palo Alto Research Center

(PARC). Since then, it has gone through four generations. We briefly discuss the

Standard (or traditional) Ethernet in this section.

Figure 13.4 802.3 MAC frame

13.27
 Figure 13.5 Minimum and maximum lengths

13.28
 13-4 FAST ETHERNET

• Fast Ethernet was designed to compete with LAN protocols such as FDDI or Fiber

Channel.
• IEEE created Fast Ethernet under the name 802.3u.
• Fast Ethernet is backward-compatible with Standard Ethernet, but it can transmit data

10 times faster at a rate of 100 Mbps.

Table 13.2 Summary of Fast Ethernet implementations

13.29
 13-5 GIGABIT ETHERNET

The need for an even higher data rate resulted in the design of the Gigabit Ethernet protocol

(1000 Mbps). The IEEE committee calls the standard 802.3z.

Table 13.3 Summary of Gigabit Ethernet implementations

Table 13.4 Summary of Ten-Gigabit Ethernet implementations

13.30
 Chapter 14

Wireless LANs

14.31 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 14-1 IEEE 802.11

Wireless communication is one of the fastest-growing technologies. The demand

for connecting devices without the use of cables is increasing everywhere.

IEEE has defined the specifications for a wireless LAN, called IEEE 802.11,

which covers the physical and data link layers.

Architecture:
•The standard defines two kinds of services: the basic service set (BSS) and the extended service
set (ESS).
• IEEE 802.11 defines the basic service set (BSS) as the building block of a wireless LAN.
•A BSS without an AP is called an ad hoc network; a BSS with an AP is called an infrastructure
network.
•An extended service set (ESS) is made up of two or more BSSs with APs
14.32
 Figure 14.1 Basic service sets (BSSs)

14.33
 Figure 14.2 Extended service sets (ESSs)

14.34
 Figure 14.3 MAC layers in IEEE 802.11 standard

• MAC is divided into PCF and DCF.

• DCF uses CSMA/CA as the access method.
• PCF is an optional access method that can be implemented in an infrastructure
network (not in an ad hoc network). It is used mostly for time-sensitive
transmission and uses contention-free polling access method

14.35
 Figure 14.5 CSMA/CA and NAV
• After the station finds the link idle, the station waits for a period of time
called the distributed interframe space (DIFS); then the station sends a
control frame called the request to send (RTS).
• When a station sends an RTS frame, it includes the duration of time that it
needs to occupy the channel. Other stations create a timer called a network
allocation vector (NAV) that shows how much time must pass before these
stations are allowed to check the channel for idleness.
• Each time a station accesses the system and sends an RTS frame, other
stations start their NAV.

Short
interframe
space (SIFS)

14.36
 Figure 14.10 Hidden station problem

• The CTS frame in CSMA/CA handshake can prevent collision from a hidden

station when A receives message from both B and C simultaneously.

• The CTS message from A, which contains the duration of data transmission from

B to A, reaches C.
• Station C knows that some hidden station is using the channel and refrains from
14.37 trans­mitting until that duration is over.
 Frame Types
• Management Frames: Management frames are used for the initial
communication between stations and access points.
• Control Frames: Control frames are used for accessing the channel and
acknowledging frames.
• Data Frames: Data frames are used for carrying data and control information.

14.38
 Figure 14.7 Frame format
The FC field is 2 bytes long and defines the type of frame and some control
information

14.39
 Table 14.2 Values of subfields in control frames

Table 14.4 Physical layers

14.40
 14-2 BLUETOOTH

Bluetooth is a wireless LAN technology designed to connect devices of different

functions such as telephones, notebooks, computers, cameras, printers, coffee

makers, and so on. A Bluetooth LAN is an ad hoc network, which means that the

network is formed spontaneously.

Architecture:
Bluetooth defines two types of networks: piconet and scatternet

14.41
 Figure 14.19 Piconet
• A piconet or a small net can have up to eight stations, one of which is called the
primary; the rest are called secondary.
• All the secondary stations synchronize their clocks and hopping sequence with the
primary.
• Note that a piconet can have only one primary station. The communication between the
primary and the secondary can be one-to-one or one-to-many.

14.42
 Figure 14.20 Scatternet
• Piconets can be combined to form what is called a scatternet.
• A secondary station in one piconet can be the primary in another piconet and
delivers messages to other secondaries;
• Thus a station can be a member of two piconets.

14.43
 15-3 VIRTUAL LANs
• We can roughly define a virtual local area network (VLAN) as a local area

network configured by software, not by physical wiring.

• The whole idea of VLAN technology is to divide a LAN into logical, instead of

physical, segments.
• A LAN can be divided into several logical LANs called VLANs. Each VLAN is a

work group in the organization.

• The group membership in VLANs is defined by software, not hardware.
• Any station can be logically moved to another VLAN.
• All members belonging to a VLAN can receive broadcast messages sent to that

particular VLAN.

15.44
 Figure 15.15 A switch connecting three LANs

15.45
 Figure 15.16 A switch using VLAN software

15.46
 Note

• VLANs create broadcast domains.

• Vendors use different characteristics such as port numbers, MAC

addresses, IP addresses, or a combination of two or more of these.

15.47
 Assignment-3

Difference between Hub, Switch, Bridge and Router

Important things to discuss in assignment

1.Collision domain
2.Broadcast domain
12.48 3.Working on which OSI Layer