Tabulation of data

MS. AMBIYA KHANAM

Asst. prof. , department of management
St. Aloysius (autonomous) College
Jabalpur
 Contents

 Concept of Classification & Tabulation

 Importance of Tabulation
 Limitations of Tabulation
 Parts of a table
 Rules for tabulation
 Characteristics of a good table
 Kinds of Tabulation
 Introduction

 Information obtained in any statistical investigation is

always in its original form often called as raw data.
 This raw data so obtained has to be organized so that
meaningful conclusions can be drawn out of it .
 So, in order to organize such data, it has to classified
and tabulated.
 Classification is the process by which data are
arranged into groups or classes according to some
criterion.
 Classification condenses the data and make it simple
and easy to understand.
Classification v/s tabulation

Classification Tabulation
 It is not based on tabulation.  It is based on classification.
 Here, the data are divided into  Here the data are distinguished
different categories on the basis by lines of different colours or
of similarity and dissimilarity . different dimensions.
 It is a process of statistical  It is a method of presentation of
analysis. data.
 Data is divided into classes and  Data are presented in the form
sub classes. of headings and sub headings.
 Percentage, ratio etc are not  Percentage, ratio etc. are shown
shown in classification. in tabulation.
Tabular Presentation of Data

 The process of presenting the classified data into tabular form is called
tabulation of data.
 It involves the orderly and systematic presentation of numerical data in
a form which is designed to elucidate the problem under investigation.
 It is an orderly arrangement of data into columns and rows.
 It is a scientific process involving the presentation of classified data in
the form of table in an orderly manner so as to bring out their essential
features and chief characteristics.
 Importance of Tabulation

Condenses the huge mass of data in an orderly manner.

Makes the data more simple and easily intelligible .
Depicts the salient features of the data and clarify the characteristics
details .
Makes the study easier and facilitates comparison.
Saves a lot of time and energy.
Makes proper use of the data to derive statistical inferences.
Helps in statistical computations
Reveals the patterns within the figures
Makes the data easier to interpret and help in the drafting of the required
report.
Easy detection of errors and omissions
Maintains a record of analysis in permanent form
 Importance of Tabulation

 Some important statistics can easily be known through mere inspection

of tables.
 Without any calculations, one can easily find the
 Minimum observation
 Maximum observation
 Total no. of observations
 Mode
 Median
 Limitations of Tabulation

 Table contains only figures and not their

descriptions.
 They can be said complementary to textual
reports.
 It requires a specialized knowledge to
understand a table.
 A table does not lay emphasis on any section
of particular importance.
Parts of a Statistical Table

 Table number
 Title
 Stub (Heading of horizontal rows)
 Caption (Heading of vertical columns)
 Main Body
 Head note /Preferatory note
 Footnote
 Source Note
 Illustration of a table

 Table number ……..

 Title…..
 Head Note (if any)

 Captions Columns
captions captions captions captions
Stubs data data data data
Stubs data data data data
 Rows

 Foot note
 Source note
 Rules for Tabulation

 Whenever tables are constructed, serial numbers should be given

to each table.
 The title of the table should be clear and precise indicating what,
where and when of the data .
 Description of rows, columns, sub rows, sub columns should be well
defined.
 Captions and stubs should be worded in minimum .
 Placement of items in rows and columns should be in order or
according to their importance.
 Units of measurement should be clearly stated.
 Explanatory notes (footnotes or head notes) should be
incorporated .
 Source of information should be clearly specified .
 Rules of Tabulation

 Table should be neat and attractive.

 It should be simple and self explanatory.
 Free from irrelevant data
 Certain figures which are to be emphasized
should be marked distinctively.
Characteristics of a good
table

 Proper size
 Should be in accordance to the objective of
the statistical investigation.
 Should provide for easy comparison
 Clarity and be easily understandable
 Data in tables should be in their original form
 Irrelevant data should be avoided.
 Explanatory notes should be incorporated.
 Kinds of Tables

1. On the basis of Purpose

A)General Purpose Tables –

Also known as Primary tables or reference tables . It
consists of all the raw data in great detail and makes no
effect to draw comparison. It facilitates easy reference and
covers a variety of information on the subjects.

B)Specific Purpose Tables-

Also known as Text Tables or summary tables or analytical
tables. They are designed to highlight a particular set of
facts in simple form to use for a specific objective.
 Kinds of Tables

2. On the basis of Originality-

A) Original Table - This presents the data in the same form in which it was
collected.

B) Derivative Table – This table presents the data that has passed through various
mathematical or statistical operations like grouping , totalling, averaging etc.
 Kinds of Tables

3. On the basis of Construction –

A) Simple Table – Also known as Single table or one way table or table of first
order. This table contains the data relating to one characteristics only.
This table is the simplest of all and is very easy to construct and
understand.
Table No……
Number of students in various faculties of College
S.No. Faculties No. of students
1. Arts 300
2. Science 250
3. Commerce 450
4. Law 120
 Kinds of Tables
3. On the basis of Construction –
B) Complex Table - This table contains data relating to more than one characteristic
, it could be two way table or table of second order( relating to two characteristics),
three way table ( relating to three characteristics).

S.No. Faculties Male Female Total

students students
1. Arts 180 120 300
2. Science 150 100 250
3 Commerce 290 160 450
4. Law 85 35 120
Presentation of Textual data in
Tabular Form

 Information given in textual form can be presented in tabular form.

To tabulate ,
first of all the text information must be read carefully,
then the basis of classification should be identified,
a blank table must be made corresponding to given classification
given figures must be entered in respective cells.
Presentation of Textual data in
Tabular Form

 In a sample study about coffee habits in two towns, it was found:

Town X : Females were 40%; total coffee drinkers were 45%;and male non
coffee drinkers were 20%
Town Y: Males were 55%; male non coffee drinkers were 30% and female
coffee drinkers were 15%.

Here the classification can be done on the basis of gender and coffee habits
. let us assume that no. of persons in each town is 100.
Town X: Females = 40 (given) , so Males = 60 .(100-40)
Total Coffee drinkers = 45(given) ,so total non coffee drinkers = 55( 100-
45)
Male non coffee drinkers = 20(given), Female non coffee drinkers = 35 (55-
20)
Male coffee drinkers = 40, (60-20), Female coffee drinkers = 5 (40-35)
Presentation of Textual data in
Tabular Form

 Town Y: Males = 55(given), so females = 45(100-55)

 Male non coffee drinkers = 30 (given ), so male coffee drinkers = 25 (55-30)
 Female coffee drinkers = 15(given) , so female non coffee drinkers = 30 (45-15)
 No. of coffee drinkers = 15+25 = 40, Non coffee drinkers = 100-40 = 60

Persons Town X Town Y

Male Females total Males Females Total
s
Coffee (40) (5) 45 (25) 15 (40)
Drinkers
Non Coffee 20 (35) (55) 30 (30) (60)
Drinkers
Total (60) 40 100 55 (45) 100
 ANALYSIS OF DATA
How to prepare a
questionnaire
 Learning OUtcomes

 Questionnaire Design
 Merits & Demerits
 Steps of designing questionnaire
 Essentials of a good questionnaire
 Questionnaire Design

 This method of data collection is very popular in big inquiries.

 Private individuals, research workers, private and public
organizations and even government agencies make use of
this method.
 Designing a QUESTIONNAIRE is not as simple and easy at first
sight.
 A marketing research, intending to collect primary data, is
required to be extremely careful in deciding various issues.
 A set of printed or written questions with a choice of answers,
devised for the purposes of a survey or statistical study.
Example: question sheet, set of questions, survey form
 Questionnaire Design

 What type of information is to collected ?

 –What types of questions are to be formulated ?
 –What should be the wording of each question ?
 –What should be their sequence ?
 –What should be the layout of the questionnaire
?
 –How to undertake pretesting of the
questionnaire?
 –How to finalize the QUESTIONNAIRE ?
 Questionnaire Design

 All these aspects require

considerable time and effort of
the marketing researcher.
 If one is able to develop a
questionnaire suitable for the
purpose, then all the efforts of
designing a questionnaire would
be fruitful.
 Merits

 Economical when the universe is large and is widely spread geographically.

 Free from bias of the interviewer; answers are in respondents own words.
 Respondents have adequate time to give well thought out answers.
 Respondents who are not easily approachable can also be reached
conveniently.
 Large samples can be made use of and thus the results can be dependable and
reliable.
 The results of the questionnaires can usually be quickly and easily quantified
by either a researcher or through the use of a software package.
 Can be analyzed more 'scientifically' and objectively than other forms of
research.
 DEmerits

 Low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires; bias

due to no response is often indeterminate.
 It can be used only when respondents are educated and
cooperating.
 Inbuilt flexibility as no amendments can be made later.
 Control over questionnaire is lost once it is sent.
 Possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of replies
which makes interpretation difficult.
 Difficult to know whether respondents are truly
representative of the population .
 Slowest method of data collection.
 Steps in designing
Questionnaire
 Decide the information required
 Define the target respondent.
 Choose the methods(s) of reaching your target
respondent.
 Decide the question content
 Develop the question wording.
 Put question into a meaningful order and format
 Check the length of the questionnaire
 Pre-test the questionnaire.
 Develop the final survey form
 Steps in designing
Questionnaire

1.Decide the information required

The first step is to decide’ what are the things one needs to know
from the respondent in order to meet the survey’s objective.

 2,Define the target respondent

 At the out set, the researcher must define the population about
which he/she wishes to generalize from the sample data to be
collected.
 Steps in designing
Questionnaire

3.Choose the methods(s) of

reaching your target respondent.
• Personal interviews
•Group or focus interviews
• Mailed questionnaires
• Telephone interview
 Steps in designing
Questionnaire

4.Decide the question content

 Researcher must always be prepared to ask,” is this
question really needed??
 There are only 2 occasions when seemingly ”redundant”
might be included:
 Opening questions that are easy to answer.
 “Dummy” question can disguise the purpose of that
survey and/or the sponsorship of the study.
 Steps in designing
Questionnaire

5.Develop the question wording

• It provide the respondent with an easy
method of indicating his answer- he does not
have to think about how to articulate his
answer.
• Responses can be easily classified, making
analysis very straight forward.
• It permits the respondent to specify the
answer categories most suitable for their
purpose.
 Steps in designing
Questionnaire
6.Put question into a meaningful order and format
• Opening questions
• Question flow
• Question variety
7.Check the length of the questionnaire.
• In general it is best for a questionnaire to be as
short as possible.
• A long questionnaire leads to a long interview and
this is open to the dangers of boredom on the part of
respondent.(and poor considered, hurried answers)
 Steps in designing
Questionnaire

8.Pre-test the questionnaire

• Test the questionnaire on a small sample of your
subject first this is possible at least it on colleagues
or friends.
• The aim here to detect any flaws in your question
and correct these prior to main survey
9.Develop the final survey form
It means designed questionnaire will be
administered among the selected sample
respondents to the study.
 Essentials of a good
questionnaire

 Short & Simple, i.e. its size should be kept to the

minimum.
 Logical sequence of questions (easy to difficult
questions).
 Personal and intimate questions should be kept at end.
 Technical terms and vague expressions should be
avoided.
 Questions may be dichotomous or multiple choice or
open ended.
 Should include certain control questions which indicate
the reliability of the respondent.
 TYPEs

Structured Questionnaires
 i) Facilitates the collection of information in a systematic and
orderly manner as the questions have been formulated in
advance.
 ii) This kind of questionnaire calls for simple and straightforward
approach on the part of interviewers. As such, less qualified
interviewers can be deployed in canvassing such a questionnaire.
 iii) Such questionnaires makes it far easier to edit, tabulate and
interpret the data it contains.
 iv) A structured questionnaire can be conveniently pre tested so
that suitable modifications can be made in phrasing or
sequencing of questions.
 TYPES

 Non Structured Questionnaires

 i) This is most suitable when motivational factors are
involved . The interviewer is free to ask probing questions to
get at the key factors.
 ii) Such questionnaires are normally used for in-depth
interviews. Such questionnaires facilitate the conducting of
interviews in an informal manner.
 iii) This gives flexibility to the whole process of interviewing .
 iv)Here the role of interviewer becomes far more important
and more capable interviewers are required for such
interviews , so it involves more time and cost.
Thankyou