CHAPETR THREE

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY AND

ORGANIZATION

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 CHAPTER OUTLINE

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Hardware: Computing, Storing and

Communicating

3.3 Programs: In Charge of the Hardware

3.4 People : The Most Important Element of IS

3.4 Process

3.5 Database Management (DBM)

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 Technology: Technology can be thought of

as the application of scientific knowledge for

practical purposes.
As discussed in the earlier chapters, the first

four components of information systems –

hardware, software, networks and data – all
fall under the category of technology.

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 Hardware
The physical components of the technology.
It is the part of an information system that
you can touch. Computers, keyboards, disk
drives, iPads, and flash drives are all
examples of information systems hardware.
In other words, hardware includes devices
such as the following:
desktop computers
laptop computers
mobile phones
tablet computers
e-readers
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  Storage devices – Primary Storage (Hard disks),

secondary storage (DVDs, CD-ROMs etc)

 Input devices, such as keyboards, mice, scanners,

remote sensors, barcode readers, etc

 Output devices such as printers and speakers.

 (Most important) the central processing unit

(CPU), which manipulates data and controls the

computer system.

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 Figure 3.1 the relationship between hardware components

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 Considerations in Purchasing Hardware

Decisions about purchasing computers are usually

made by an organization’s IT professionals or with

the help of a consulting firm.
But surveys show an increasing trend of involving

other employees in the decision-making process.

More and more companies realize that effective

use of computers depends on whether their

employees are satisfied with the computers and
other equipment installed in their workplace.
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 Before deciding what to purchase, consider the
following variables:

1. The equipment’s power: Its speed, its

memory size, and the capacity of its storage
devices, such as the hard disk installed in the
computer.

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 2. Expansion slots: Computers should have
enough slots to add circuitry cards for
additional purposes.

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 3. The number and type of external ports:
Ports are sockets used to connect a computer

to external devices such as printers, hard

disks, scanners, remote keyboards and
pointers, and communication devices.
More ports give more flexibility. The greater

the number of USB ports, the more external

devices can be added at the same time.

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 4. The monitor type and Resolution:
Higher resolution is more pleasing and less

straining to the eyes.

Larger monitors allow viewing the windows of

many software applications simultaneously and

require less scrolling.

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 5. Ergonomics:
Ergonomic equipment does not strain the
back, arms, and eyes. For example, working
with the keyboard must be comfortable.
Traditional keyboards cause muscle pain
when used for long sessions. Consider
purchasing an ergonomic keyboard.

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 6. Compatibility:
 IT managers must ensure that new devices will integrate

with existing hardware, software, and networks.

 A new computer might have a different operating system

or internal architecture.
 If it is to be used to host an important application, care

must be taken to ensure that the application will run on

the new machine.
 For example, commercial software vendors guarantee

that their applications will run on a list of processors and

operating systems. Professionals must consider
backward compatibility, in which newer hardware is
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compatible with older hardware.
 7. The hardware footprint:
If space is scarce, you might want to consider the

size of the computer and its peripheral

equipment.
The footprint is the area that a computer
occupies. A smaller footprint leaves more desk
space for other devices.
This is one of the major reasons for adopting flat-

panel monitors when they first appeared on the

14 market.
 8. The reliability of the vendor, the
warranty policy, and the support given
after the warranty expires:
Ask if the vendor provides a Web site and 24-

hour help via telephone.

Try to assess how soon the equipment will be

obsolete, a difficult task given the reality of

fast development in computer equipment.

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 9. Power consumption and noise:
Computers that consume less power help save

money on electricity and usually also give off

less heat.
Computers use fans to cool down the circuitry.

Quiet fans will make the work environment

more pleasant.

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 10. Cost:
All of the preceding factors must be weighed

against cost.
Careful study might yield hardware with

excellent performance for an affordable

price.

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 Software (Programs)
The second component of Information Technology is

software.
Software is the set of instructions that tell the hardware

what to do.
Software is created through the process of
programming.
Without software, the hardware would not be functional.

Software can be broadly divided into two categories:

 operating systems and

 application software.
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 Operating systems manage the hardware and
create the interface between the hardware and the
user (managing the resources of the computer, such
as the CPU, communications links and output
devices).
Application software is the category of
programs that do something useful for the user
(enabling users to apply the computer to specific
tasks, such as email, word processing and stock
control)..
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 Figure 3.2 Types of Software

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 Operating Systems

The operating system provides several essential

functions, including:
1. managing the hardware resources of the

computer;
2. providing the user-interface components;

3. Providing a platform for software

developers to write applications.

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 Operating System Functions
Operating systems provide several services, the

most important of which is system management.

System management refers to the efficient
allocation of hardware resources to applications
and includes tasks such as allocating RAM
locations for software and data, instructing the
CPU to run or stop, allocating CPU time to
different programs running at the same time etc
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 User Interface:
 An important part of the OS is the user interface.

The interface takes the form of easy-to-

understand frames, icons, and menus.
Users find it helpful to have most of the interface

features identical regardless of the application

they use, unless the application requires an
interface element for a unique feature.

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 Plug and Play: A good operating system should also

facilitate fairly simple changes to hardware

configuration.
When a new device, such as an external hard disk, DVD

burner, external communication device, or joystick, is

attached to a computer, the operating system’s job is to
recognize the new attachment and its function.
If the OS can do so (without your intervention)
immediately after you attach the device, it is a plug-
and-play (PnP) OS, and the device, too, is referred to as
a plug-and-play device.
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 Current Operating Systems
All computing devices run an operating system.

For personal computers, the most popular

operating systems are Microsoft’s Windows,
Apple’s OS X, and different versions of Linux.
Smartphone’s and tablets run operating systems

as well, such as Apple’s iOS, Google’s Android,

Microsoft’s Windows Mobile, and Blackberry.

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  Since 1990, both Apple and Microsoft have released many

new versions of their operating systems, with each release

adding the ability to process more data at once and access

more memory.
 Features such as multitasking, virtual memory, and voice

input have become standard features of both operating

systems.
 A third personal-computer operating system family that is

gaining in popularity is Linux (pronounced “linn-ex”).

 Linux has many variations and now powers a large

percentage of web servers in the world. It is also an example

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 Sidebar: Mac vs. Windows

Are you a Mac? Are you a PC? Ever since its

introduction in 1984, users of the Apple

Macintosh have been quite biased about their
preference for the Macintosh operating system
(now called OS X) over Microsoft’s.
When Microsoft introduced Windows, Apple
sued Microsoft, claiming that they copied the
“look and feel” of the Macintosh operating
27 system. In the end, Microsoft successfully
 Over the past few years, Microsoft and Apple

have traded barbs with each other, each

claiming to have a better operating system and
software.
While Microsoft has always had the larger
market share, Apple has been the favorite of
artists, musicians, and the technology elite.
Apple also provides a lot of computers to
elementary schools, thus gaining a following
among the younger generation.
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 Sidebar: Why Is Microsoft Software So Dominant in the
Business World?

If you’ve worked in the world of business, you

may have noticed that almost all of the computers

run a version of Microsoft’s Windows operating
system. Why is this?
On almost all college campuses, you see a
preponderance (predominance) of Apple
Macintosh laptops. In elementary schools, Apple
reigns as well. Why has this not extended into the
business world?
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 Application Software
The second major category of software is application

software.
Application software is, essentially, software that
allows the user to accomplish some goal or purpose.
For example, if you have to write a paper, you might

use the application-software program Microsoft Word.

If you want to listen to music, you might use iTunes.

To surf the web, you might use opera mini or Firefox.

Even a computer game could be considered

application software.
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  Includes a variety of programs that can be
subdivided into
 General –Purpose, and

 Application-Specific categories.

 General purpose application programs are

programs that perform common information
processing jobs for end users.
 Also called productivity package

 Examples include:

 Word processing programs

31  Spreadsheet programs 12/02/2024
 Application-Specific Programs:
 Major categories of application specific programs

are-
 Business Application Programs-

 Programs that accomplish the information

processing tasks of important business
functions
 Scientific Application Program-

 Such as scientific analysis, engineering design,

and monitoring of experiment.

 Other Application Program-
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 Integrated Packages
 Integrated packages combine the functions of

several programs into one package

 E.g. Microsoft Works, Apple works

 Advantages

 Many functions for lower prices

 Uses less disk space

 Frequently pre-installed on microcomputer

 Disadvantages

 Limited functionality

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 Web Browsers
 Software applications that support navigation
through the point-and-click hyper-linked
resources of the web.
 Becoming the universal platform from which end

users launch:
 Information searches

 E-mail

 Multimedia file transfer

 Discussion groups

 Other Internet-based applications

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
 Search Engines
 Browsers are used to gain access to Internet

search engines such as:

 Google,

 Ask Jeeves,

 LookSmart,

 Lycos,

 Yahoo

 Using search engines to find information has

become an indispensable part of Internet,

Intranet, and Extranet applications
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 E-mail, Instant Messaging, and Weblogs
 E-mail

 Software to communicate by sending and

receiving messages and attachments via the
Internet, Intranet, or Extranet.
 Instant Messaging (IM)

 Receive electronic messages instantly

 Weblog or blog

 A personal website in dated log format

 Updated with new information about a subject

or range of subjects
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 Electronic Spreadsheets
 Used by virtually every business for:

 Analysis, planning, modeling

 Electronic Spreadsheet

 Worksheet of rows and columns

 Can be stored on local computer or on network

 Requires designing format and developing the

relationships (formulas)
 Mostly helps you develop charts and graphic

displays and spreadsheet results

 Support what-if questions
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 Presentation Graphics
 Common Presentation Graphics Packages:

 Convert numeric data into graphics displays

 Used to create multimedia presentations of

graphics, photos, animations, and video clips

 E.g. Microsoft Power Point, Carel
Presentations, Keynotes

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 Mobile Applications
 Just as with the personal computer, mobile devices
such as tablet computers and Smartphone’s also
have operating systems and application software.
 In fact, these mobile devices are in many ways just
smaller versions of personal computers.
A mobile app is a software application
programmed to run specifically on a mobile device.
 Smartphone’s and tablets are becoming a
dominant form of computing, with many more
Smartphones being sold than personal computers.
 This means that organizations will have to get
smart about developing software on mobile
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devices in order to stay relevant.
 These days, most mobile devices run on one of two

operating systems:
 Android or

 iOS.

Android is an open-source operating system

purchased and supported by Google; while
iOS is Apple’s mobile operating system. In the

second quarter of 2016, Android was installed on

86.2% of all mobile phones shipped, followed by
12.9% for iOS.
Other mobile operating systems of note are
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Windows (0.6%) and Blackberry (0.1%).
 Cloud Computing
Historically, for software to run on a computer, an

individual copy of the software had to be installed on the

computer, either from a disk or, more recently, after
being downloaded from the Internet.
The concept of “cloud” computing changes this,
however.
“The cloud” refers to applications, services, and data

storage on the Internet. These service providers rely on

giant server farms and massive storage devices that are
connected via Internet protocols.
Cloud computing is the use of these services by
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individuals and organizations.
 You probably already use cloud computing in some

forms.
For example, if you access your e-mail via your web

browser, you are using a form of cloud computing.

While this is free versions of cloud computing,

there is big business in providing applications and

data storage over the web.
Cloud computing is not limited to web applications:

it can also be used for services such as phone or

video streaming.

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 Advantages of Cloud Computing
1. No software to install or upgrades to maintain.

2. Available from any computer that has access to the

Internet.

3. Can scale to a large number of users easily.

4. New applications can be running very quickly.

5. Services can be leased for a limited time on and as-

needed basis.

6. Your information is not lost if your hard disk crashes

or your laptop is stolen.

7. You are not limited by the available memory or disk

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space on your computer.
 Disadvantages of Cloud Computing

1. Your information is stored on someone else’s

computer – how safe is it?

2. You must have Internet access to use it. If you

do not have access, you’re out of luck.

3. You are relying on a third-party to provide

these services.

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 The People

People are involved in information systems in

just about every way you can think of:

 people imagine information systems,

 people develop information systems,

 people support information systems, and,

 perhaps most
importantly, people use information
systems.
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 Systems Analyst
 The role of the systems analyst is to straddle the
divide between identifying business needs and
imagining a new or redesigned computer-based
system to fulfill those needs.
 This individual will work with a person, team, or
department with business requirements and
identify the specific details of a system that needs
to be built.
 A systems analyst generally is not the one who
does the actual development of the information
system.
 The design document created by the systems
analyst provides the detail needed to create the
system and is handed off to a programmer (or team
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of programmers) to do the actual creation of the
system.
 Programmer
Programmers spend their time writing
computer code in a programming language.
In the case of systems development,
programmers generally attempt to fulfill the
design specifications given to them by a
systems analyst.
Generally, a programmer is very proficient in

mathematics, as mathematical concepts

underlie most programming code.
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Computer Engineer
Computer engineers design the computing
devices that we use every day.

Computer engineer can be

Hardware engineer: A hardware engineer
designs hardware components, such as
microprocessors.
Software engineer: Software engineers do not

actually design devices; instead, they create new

programming languages and operating systems,
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working at the lowest levels of the hardware to
 Systems engineer: A systems engineer takes the
components designed by other engineers and makes
them all work together.
For example, to build a computer, the mother board,

processor, memory, and hard disk all have to work

together. A systems engineer has experience with many
different types of hardware and software and knows how
to integrate them to create new functionality.

Network engineer: A network engineer’s job is to

understand the networking requirements of an
organization and then design a communications system
to meet those needs, using the networking hardware and
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software available.
 Information-Systems Users – Types of Users

The users of information system represents a

very large percentage of the people involved.

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 Everett Rogers, in his book, Diffusion of
Innovation, identified five specific types of
technology adopters:
Innovators: Innovators are the first individuals

to adopt a new technology.

Innovators are willing to take risks, are the

youngest in age, have the highest social class,

have great financial liquidity, are very social,
and have the closest contact with scientific
sources and interaction with other innovators.
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 Early adopters: The early adopters are those

who adopt innovation after a technology has

been introduced and proven.
These individuals have the highest degree
of opinion leadership among the other adopter
categories, which means that they can
influence the opinions of the largest majority.
They are typically younger in age, have higher

social status, more financial liquidity, more

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advanced education, and are more socially
 Early majority: Individuals in this category
adopt an innovation after a varying degree of
time.
This time of adoption is significantly longer than

the innovators and early adopters.

This group tends to be slower in the adoption

process, has above average social status, has

contact with early adopters, and seldom holds
positions of opinion leadership in a system.

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 Late majority: The late majority will adopt an

innovation after the average member of the

society.
These individuals approach an innovation with a

high degree of skepticism, have below average

social status, very little financial liquidity, are in
contact with others in the late majority and the
early majority, and show very little opinion
leadership.
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 Laggards: Individuals in this category are the last to

adopt an innovation.
Unlike those in the previous categories, individuals in

this category show no opinion leadership.

These individuals typically tend to be advanced in

age.
Laggards typically tend to be focused on “traditions,”

are likely to have the lowest social status and the

lowest financial liquidity, be oldest of all other
adopters, and be in contact with only family and close

55 friends.
 These five types of users can be translated into

information-technology adopters as well, and

provide additional insight into how to implement
new information systems within an organization.
For example, when rolling out a new system, IT

may want to identify the innovators and early

adopters within the organization and work with
them first, then leverage their adoption to drive
the rest of the implementation.
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