Details of Water tube

boilers
 -:The Steam generator components

• A steam generating system is large and complex.

• It consists of combustion equipments, furnace,

and various heat transfer surfaces.

• In addition the steam generating system has

some addition equipments needed for efficient
operation, these auxiliaries include at least the
boiler fans ,stack and NOx removable system.
The principal steam generator components
include the following

• Furnace.
• Drum.
• Convection pass.
• Super heater.
• Economizer.
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A boiler furnace is that space under or adjacent to a boiler in

which fuel is burned and from which the combustion products pass
into the boiler properly.
 Furnace Design and Classification

Furnaces are of many types and maybe classified in many

ways. Their names may be descriptive of a construction feature
or operating characteristic
Classified according to wall construction, the furnace may
be:

Air-cooled refractory setting.

Solid refractory setting.
Water wall (water-cooled).
Classified by the pressure maintained, the furnace may
be:

o Balanced draft.
o Pressurized.
o Supercharged.
 The furnace
• The size of the furnace is determined by
the required steam capacity and the
characteristics of the fired fuel.
• The principal design methods used to
control furnace size is as follows:

• Fuel heat input per furnace plan area

• Heat available to the furnace per effective
projected radiant surface area , or
furnace release rate;
• Furnace exist gas temperature ;and
• The burner flame length
 The furnace must provide :

• Proper installation, operation, and

maintenance of fuel burning equipment.
• Sufficient volume for combustion equipments.
• Adequate refractory and insulation.
• Accessibility to the boiler for the maintenance
and repair work that must be handled from
inside the furnace chamber.
 Refractory Walls
There are two general types of refractory boiler
settings:

 The solid wall.

 The air-cooled (hollow) wall.

The solid wall setting may have an exterior of first quality common
brick with high duty or super-duty firebrick refractory lining

The air-cooled wall has a space between the refractory lining and the
exterior courses through which air is permitted to circulate

Refractory materials of a ceramic nature can withstand high

temperatures, including direct impingement if the flame, up to about
1900 °C
 Water-Cooled and refractory Walls
In boiler furnaces which burn low volatile fuels, the zone of stable ignition and
intensive combustion of the fuel is formed at the burner level by making water-
walls from tubes and coating them with refractory material. (Water-tubes +
Refractory material)

.
Water
Walls

Refractory
Material
 Water-Cooled Walls
 Furnaces with water-walls are partially or completely surrounded by
tubes carrying water.

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 Water Walls are designated by such terms
as:

Bare-plate wall. All internally fired, portable or integral

firebox boilers have bare-plate water-walls.

Plain or Bare-tube wall. Water-tube boilers may have plain tubes set in
front of the refractory walls such as a shadow wall

Extended-surface wall. A customary construction to provide greater heat

absorbing surface is to weld fins or studs onto the tubes

Bare-tube wall

Extended-surface
wall
 Water wall tubes and side tubes

• Waterwall materials: Most waterwalls have a

membrane panel construction. Membrane and filler
wire material typically match the tubing material.
• For example, if the waterwall material is SA-213
T11 (1-1/4% chrome and 1/2% molybdenum), the
membrane material would be SA-387 Gr. 11 and
the filler metal material would be E8018 (EB2).
 Wall
Construction
Comparison of wall
construction
Generating tubes are
typically the tubes extending
between the mud and steam
drums that convert a large volume
of water to steam. Generating
tubes are manufactured in various
grades of carbon steel (SA-178
Gr. A, SA-178 Gr. C, SA-192, and
SA-210 Al).
Water wall tubes and side tubes
Fluid Fuel Firing Methods

Arrangement of burners
in furnaces.

a) Front type (horizontal)

b) Opposed type
c) Tangential type
d-f) Cyclone type
1) Horizontal Firing

Directing the flame horizontally into

the boiler is the method of firing used
for nearly all smaller boilers. Large
units are also horizontally fired if the
furnace width is kept to a minimum.

2) Vertical Firing

Stable furnace conditions with low

volatile fuel may be obtained by
vertical firing from the top of the
boiler.
3) Opposed Firing
 Walls of the furnace operation under favorable conditions

 The flame is concentrated in the central high-

temperature zone of the furnace space
 Intermixing of the opposing streams produce a highly
turbulent furnace condition; combustion is virtually
completed in this area
 There is little tendency toward flame impingement

Figure: Opposed
firing arrangement
(Turbo Furnace)
 4) Tangential Firing
Furnace characterized by a
square cross-sectional shape with
burners in two or more corners

The flame pattern imparts a

rotating or spinning motion to the
flame body
Tangential firing provides an
extremely rapid, turbulent
combustion with short flame
lengths
The furnace temperature is lower
than with vertical or horizontal
firing. Figure: Horizontal rotating flame
pattern of tangential firing
 Furnace Temperature Control

It is customary to control the furnace gas exit temperature by

using the following methods:

a) Differential firing.

b) Tilting burners

c) By-pass dampers

d) Gas re-circulation

e) Multiple furnace firing

a) Differential Firing:

Horizontally fired burners are usually mounted at different

levels in the boiler. This flexible arrangement allows the
amount of flame-swept water wall to be varied.

At low loads upper burners are used, effectively

eliminating the lower portion of the boiler as a heat
transfer area.

At high loads the burners at the lower levels are fired,

increasing the capacity spread in which constant exit gas
temperature (and consequently constant steam
temperature) is obtained.
 b) Tilting Burners

It is common practice to install burners that tilt in a vertical plane.

The tilt is automatically controlled to offset the day-to-day

variations caused by operators’ selection of burners.
c) By-pass Dampers
 Various damper arrangements are used to by-pass combustion
gases around portions of the convection surface

d) Gas Re-circulation
 The heat content of the gases entering the super-heater may
be raised by re-circulating a portion of the combustion gas.
 This re-circulation reduces the furnace temperature and therefore
the furnace absorption, leaving more heat content in the gas
entering the convection super-heaters.

e) Multiple Furnaces
 A two-furnace unit may have the finishing super-heater
located in one furnace and the re-heater in the other.
 Another arrangement is the triple furnace, which has an
evaporating section, a super-heating section, and a re-heating
section.
 Drum
• Steam drum is used in recirculation boilers that
operate at sub critical pressure.

• The steam drum is located at the top of the boiler

to provide an upper reservoir for the water covering
the generating tube bank.

• The primary purpose of the steam drum is to separate

the saturated steam from the steam water mixture.
Steam Drum
 Drum
• The steam drum is also used in the following:
– To mix the saturated water that remains after steam
separation with the incoming feed water.
– To mix the chemicals those are put into the drum for
the purpose of corrosion control and water
treatment.
– To purify the steam by removing contaminations and
residual moisture.
– To provide the source for a blow down system where
a portion of the water is rejected as a means of
controlling the boiler water chemistry and reducing
the solids content.
– To provide storage of water to accommodate any
rapid changes in the boiler load.
 Drum
• Efficient steam-water separation is of the major
importance as it obtains high-quality steam that is
free of moisture. This leads to the following key
factors in efficient boiler operation:-
– To prevent the carry-over of water droplets into the super
heater where thermal damage could result.
– It minimizes the carry-under of steam with the water that
leaves the drum, where this residual steam would reduce
the circulation effectiveness of the boiler.
– It prevents the carry over of solids. Solids are dissolved in
the water droplets that may be entrained in the steam if not
separated properly.
– By proper separation, this prevents the formation of
deposits in the super heater and ultimately on the turbine
blades.
 Components of a Boiler
Steam Drum
• It is a pressure vessel that collects steam from the
upcoming tubes and separates moisture from the steam
by different methods and then delivers the steam to the
superheater.
• It receives and stores feed water to distribute it to the
down coming water tubes.
• It controls the level of water by the feed pipe and
blowdown pipes.
• Controls the boiler water chemistry and Ph balance by
injecting chemicals through the chemical feed pipe.
Steam Drum
 Steam
Drum
• Feedwater leaves the economizer and enters the
boiler through the internal feed pipe and becomes
"boiler water." Perforations along the side of the
feed pipe allow water to be distributed evenly
throughout the steam drum

• The vortex eliminators are used to reduce the

swirling motion of the water as it enters the
downcomers.
CYCLONE &
MIST
SEPARATOR

The baffle plates are used to direct the steam to the steam
.separators
The cyclone steam separators remove moisture from the•
steam. This is accomplished by the steam spinning or
.changing direction
The water drains back into the steam drum while the steam
continues upward through a screen and scrubber that
.removes still more moisture
 Drum
• Boiler water contains contaminants that
come from impurities in make up water,
treatment chemicals, and leaks within the
condensate system.

• The cooling water impurities also occur from

the reaction of boiler water and contaminants
with the materials of the boiler and of the
equipments prior to entering the boiler.
 Drum
• The steam quality depends on proper steam –
water separation as well as the feed water quality,
and this is a major consideration in having a plant
with high availability and low maintenance costs.
• Even low levels of solids in the steam can damage
the super heater and turbine, causing significant
outages, high maintenance costs, and loss of
production revenues.
 Steam Drum
• The surface blow pipe is
used to remove suspended
solid matter that floats on top
of the water and to lower the
steam drum water level,
when necessary.
• The surface blow pipe is also
used to blow water out to
lower the chemical level in
the boiler when it becomes
too high.
• The dry pipe is used to direct
the steam to the steam drum
outlet nozzle after it leaves
the scrubbers.
 Internal Drum Fittings
• The internal fittings in the steam drum help
distribute the water evenly throughout the drum,
separate the generated steam from the water and
remove moisture from the steam before it leaves
the boiler
– Lower baffle plates or apron plates Separate the
incoming feedwater and generated steam and direct the
steam to the separators.
– Primary separators (cyclone separators) Separate
most of the water from the steam by giving it a cyclone
or rotary motion so that the water particles are expelled
from the steam by the centrifugal forces. These
separators are vertically mounted in the steam drum so
that the steam rises out the top and the water falls back
into the steam drum.
Internal Drum Fittings
– Secondary separators (chevron dryers)

– Remove additional moisture from the steam by

changing the direction of steam flow several
times.
– The steam passes on but the moisture cannot
make the direction change with the steam.
– These separators are mounted above the
primary separators and direct steam to the dry
box which collects the steam at the top of the
steam drum, directing it to the steam outlet
piping to the superheater.
 Drum internals for B&W
• Drum internals provide high steam purity and ensure
positive circulation.
• There are two primary steam separators to choose from – a
baffle-type for 3 ppm solids or an optional cyclone-type for 1
ppm solids. Both designs incorporate corrugated- type
secondary scrubbers.
• Dry pipe steam separation also is available for 1 /2 %
moisture steam.
 Sidewall Header
• The sidewall header is located along the furnace
sidewall connecting sidewall tubes from the
furnace floor to the steam drum.
• It distributes water to the sidewall tubes and
provides another blowdown point for sludge
removal.
• The sidewall tubes are two inch tubes which
protect the boiler sidewall refractory from the
direct heat of combustion and generate a small
amount of steam.
 Rearwall Header
• The lower rearwall header is located along the
furnace rearwall from the furnace floor to the
steam drum or upper header to provide a lower
junction for rearwall tubes.
• It distributes water to the rearwall tubes and
provides yet another blowdown point for removal
of sludge.
• The rearwall tubes are two inch tubes which
protect the boiler rearwall refractory from the
heat of combustion and generate some steam.
SAFETY VALVES
 SAFETY
VALVES
• Boilers are equipped with safety valves to relieve
excessive pressure.
• The valves are located on the steam drum and
superheater outlet.
• They are designed to relieve sufficient pressure to
safely steam the boiler at 120% with boiler steam
stop valves closed.
 Air Vents
• Air vents or air cocks are installed on top
of the steam drum to expel air from inside
the steam drum during cold boiler light-off
or when filling the boiler.
• The air vents or air cocks are shut when
the boiler starts generating steam.
 Feed Pipe

• Feedwater leaves the economizer and enters the

boiler through the internal feed pipe and becomes
"boiler water." Perforations along the side of the
feed pipe allow water to be distributed evenly
throughout the steam drum.
 Feed Pipe
• The feedwater pipe receives feedwater
from the economizer and distributes it
throughout the length of the steam drum.
• The chemical feed pipe is used to inject
chemicals into the boiler to maintain the
proper pH and phosphate balance in the
boiler water.
 The Surface blow pipe
• Since suspended solids may accumulate on the
surface of the water in the Steam drum, there
must be means of removing them.
• The surface blow pipe is used to remove these
light suspended solids from the surface of the
water and to reduce the total dissolved solid
content of the boiler water.
• Suspended solids usually consist of oil, salt
contaminants, or excessive treatment chemicals
which can cause foaming on the water surface.
• Dissolved solids usually consist of salt
contaminants and treatment chemicals that are in
solution.
 WATER DRUM
• The water drum is located at the bottom of
the boiler below the main generating bank
and acts as a lower reservoir of water for
distribution to the main generating bank.
• Also, this large drum serves as a collection
point for solids (sludge) that precipitate to
the bottom that are removed by bottom
blowdown.
 Components of a Boiler
Economizer

• It is a special type of heat exchanger used to

preheat the feed water before entering the
steam drum
• Preheating the feed water increases the
efficiency of the boiler by using exhaust waste
energy for preheating thus saving the fuel.
• Using an economizer also reduces thermal
shocks and stresses that result from cold feed
water entering the steam drum.
Economizer
Economizer
• Complete economizer design
depends on type of fuel, heat
source, flue gas characteristics,
operating hours, load variation,
available draft, fouling,
pluggage, sootblower
requirements, gas velocity, and
temperatures.
ECONOMIZER
 ECONOMIZER
• The economizer tubes have metal projections from
the outer tube surfaces. These projections are
called by various names, including FINS, STUDS,
or GILLS.
• These gills are heated and fitted to tubes of
economizer and after cooling will be tight
• They are made of aluminum, steel, or other
metals, in a variety of shapes.
• These projections serve to extend the heat transfer
surface of the tubes on which they are installed.
 ECONOMIZER
• The economizer is a multi-pass heat exchanger
located above the main generating bank at the base
of the exhaust stack, so that combustion gas will
give up a lot of its remaining heat to the incoming
feedwater before passing out the stack .

• The incoming feedwater absorbs about 55-110°C

sensible heat from the exhaust gases.
ECONOMIZER
 Economizer
• Corrosion can be avoided by setting the
flow gases temperature (stack
temperature) above the dew point.
• Below the dew point water vapor in the
flue gas will condense on the surface and
combine with the sulfur dioxide in the flue
gases to generate an acid.
 Superheater

• Steam coming out of a boiler drum is never

free from water droplets.
• Wetness fraction may be of the order of 15%
to 20% and in most favorable conditions
wetness is less than 10% therefore super
heaters are built with steam generators.

• The main function of the super heater is to

dry off the steam coming out of the boiler.
• The secondary function is to increase the
availability of steam.
 Superheater
• Super heater heat transfer may be radiant
surface in the furnace or convective surface
in the convection pass.

• The final steam temperature is influenced by

many factors such as gas flow, gas velocity,
gas temperature, steam flow and velocity.

• Overheating of the superheated tubes must

be prevented in the design, and this
requires uniform steam flow and steam
velocity through the tubes.
 Super heater
• The final steam temperature is influenced
by many factors such as
• gas flow,
• gas velocity,
• gas temperature,
• steam flow and
• velocity.
Superheater
superheater Vertical
 .Steam temperature control

• One of the basic functions of a steam

generator is to produce steam at design
temperature.

• Therefore the steam generator is designed

to maintain the steam temperature over a
specified temperature control range.
 Super heat temperature control is
-:achieved by
• Gas bypass
• Burner control
• Attemperation
• Gas recirculation
• Excess air
• Divided furnace
 Gas bypass
• It is to control the gas flow rate to the
super heater.
• The main disadvantage of this approach is
the operating difficulties experienced by
the movable dampers located in the high
temperature zone and the slow response
to load change.
 Burner control
• Is used to control the flame location and
combustion rate.
• Tilting burners can direct the flame toward
or away from the super heater; these will
result in a change of heat absorption in the
furnace and change of gas temperature in
the super heater as the boiler load is
reduced .
• Burners are removed one by one from
service; this will change the combustion
rate and, thus, change the gas flow rate to
the super heater.
 Attemperators
(Desuperheaters)

• Attemperators are used to cool down the

temperature of the dry superheated steam for
auxiliary systems and other machines or processes
that do not cope with high temperature steam.

• Attemperators are always located at the point

between the primary and secondary super heaters.
 Attemperators
There are two basic types of Attemperators.

• The first is the tubular type in which some of super heated

steam is passed through the tubes of a heat exchanger and
had heat transferred to the boiler water (either feed water or
the water in the boiler drum).

• The second type of temperature involves a spray of feed

water into the stream of super heated steam; the feed water
evaporates and reduces the steam temperature controlling
the amount of feed water will result in control of the steam
temperature. Care must be exercised to ensure that the
spray water has sufficient purity. The spray water should
mix well with the super heated steam so that there are no
water droplets in the inlet of the secondary super heater.
DESUPERHEATER
 DESUPERHEATER
• It may be located either in the steam drum
or in the water drum.
• All the steam generated in a single-furnace
boiler is led through the superheater.
• However, since some auxiliary machinery is
not designed for superheated steam, the
steam must be cooled down.
• This is done with a desuperheater.
 Gas Recirculation
• Is used to control the steam temperature by changing the
heat absorption rates both in the furnace and superheated.
• When the steam temperature is to be raised , some of the
flue gas from the economizer outlet is recirculated back to
the bottom of the furnace therefore the furnace temperature
will become lower , resulting in a lower heat absorption in
the furnace and there by a higher flue gas temperature in
the furnace exit.

• This high gas temperature, combined with an increase in

the gas flow rate, will increase the heat transfer rate in the
super heater and thus increase the steam outlet
temperature.
 Excess air
• Temperature control can be affected by using
different amounts of excess air; the higher
excess air the higher the steam outlet
temperature would be.
• The reasons for this are similar to those for
the gas recirculation method.

• It must be pointed out that too much excess

air will result in reduction of boiler
combustion efficiency.
 Divided furnace

• A divided furnace boiler is usually arranged

with a generation of saturated steam in one
section and a super heating steam in
another section.

• The temperature of the superheated steam

is regulated by controlling the firing rates in
the two sections. This method is not
economical.
 Feed water quality and steam purity

Feed water quality and steam purity are

interrelated in that the feed water quality
affects the steam purity.
Boiler feed water quality is addressed in a
boiler specification by specifying the steam
purity requirements , which in turn are
based on turbine manufacturer
recommendations or the process
requirements for cogeneration uses .
 Fans
• Early and small-capacity steam generators relied
upon natural draft for the combustion gases. Proper
design of gas passages must be provided to
overcome the various pressure losses within the
generator, and supply the required air for
combustion.
• Large steam generators require an assist to push the
air in, pull the gas out, or both. For this, they use
large fans
• There are two types of fans in use today:
• Forced-draft (FD)
Induced-draft (ID) fans.
 Forced-draft fans

• Used alone as in many large steam generators

and practically all marine applications, are
placed at the air entrance to the air preheater
and put the entire system up to the stack
entrance under positive gage pressure.
Because they handle only cold air, they have
several advantages over induced-draft fans.
 Forced-draft fans
Advantages:
1. They have lower maintenance problems.
2. They consume much less power because the cold air
has the lowest specific volume in air-gas path.
3. A fan is a steady-flow thermodynamic system so that
the work wsf per unit mass-flow rate is
Wsf =  v dP , where v is the specific volume, being
lowest for the cold air entering.
4. Their load is reduced by the absence of the additional
gas equivalent of the fuel added.
5. As a consequence of the above, their capital and
operating costs are lower.
 Forced-draft fans
Disadvantages:
1. Leakage of noxious gases from the furnace walls
would be to the outside, necessitating a gas-tight
furnace construction.
2. Special attention must be given to the design of
inspection doors, soot blower boxes, and fuel-
igniter openings.
For good reliability two forced-draft fans, operating
in parallel are usually used, each one capable of at
least 60 percent of full load flow when the other is
out of service.
 Induced-draft fans
• located in the gas stream between the air
preheater and the stack .
• They discharge essentially at atmospheric
pressure and place the entire system under
negative gage pressure.
• They must handle hot gases, including the
original air, the gas equivalent of the fuel
added, and leakages into the system.
• Their power requirements are therefore greater
than forced-draft fans.
• Induced–draft fans are seldom used alone.
Forced-Induced draft fans

– The FD fans push atmospheric air through the air

preheater, dampers, various air ducts, and
burners into the furnace.

– The ID fans pull the combustion gases from the

furnace, through the heat-transfer surfaces in the
super heaters, reheaters, economizer, and gas
side preheater and into the stack.
Fans for electric-generating
plants
• Among the largest made: capacities of
(700m3/sec) and 60-in water static pressures
(2.2 psi, 0.15 bar) are common.

• Because they operate continuously for long

periods ( up to 1 or 1½ years), the fans must
be well designed, ruggedly constructed, well
balanced, and highly efficient over a wide
range of outputs.
Fans used in electric-generating
plants
• There are two types of fans in common use: centrifugal
and axial.
• In the centrifugal fan, the gases are accelerated radially
through curved or flat impeller blades from rotor to a
spiral or volute housing.
• In the axial fan, gases are accelerated parallel to the rotor
axes.
• Axial fans (with variable-pitch moving blades) maintain
high efficiencies over wider range of loads than constant-
speed centrifugal fans but have higher capital costs.
 Fans
• In general, centrifugal fans with backward-curved blading
are used for FD fans and with flat or forward-curved
blading for ID fans.

Blading (A- Forward b- Flat C-backward curved)

Vb, air velocity relative to blade; V absolute velocity
 Fans
• (Occasionally backward-curved blading
but with curvature less than that for FD
fans is used.) The lesser curvature
results in lower tip speed and allow less
dirt to cling to the backside of the blades,
thus minimizing the erosive effect of ash.

• Low-speed fans with flat blades are used

with particularly dirty or corrosive gases.
 Fans
• Because the pressure differential P across a fan
is usually small, the airflow or gas flow may be
considered incompressible, that is v=constant.
wsf = (v P)/f ft.lbf/lbm or J/kg
The power would be given by
Wsf = (mv P)/ f ft.lbf/s or w
Where v = specific volume of air or gas, from the
Perfect gas equation, ft3/ lbm or m3/kg
P = pressure rise across the fan, lb f/ft2 or N/m2 (Pa)
f = fan efficiency, dimensionless
m = mass-flow rate of air or gas, lb m/ s or kg/s
 Fans

.Centrifugal fan with backward-curved blades

The characteristics usually show pressure and other parameters
based on static pressure. Static pressure is the force per unit area
exerted on a wall by an adjacent fluid that is at rest with respect to
the wall. A fluid in motion, in addition, has velocity pressure. Static
and velocity pressures is called total pressure.
 Fan Control

There are two common methods of

controlling the output fan:

1. Damper control
2. Variable-speed control.
 Damper control
• Damper control has the advantage of low capital
costs for the damper mechanism itself and for the
fan drive motor, which would be a simple
constant-speed induction ac motor.

• It is easily adaptable to automation and allows

continuous rather stepwise control.

• It suffers, however, from the disadvantage that it

adds additional flow resistance that the fan must
overcome by increasing its power input.
 Damper control
• Dampers are usually put on the outlet side of the
fan, although inlet dampers, called inlet vanes,
are sometimes used. They consume less power
than outlet dampers but are only effective for
moderate load changes near full load.

• When used with FD fans, they are usually used

in combination with outlet dampers.
 Variable-speed control
Variable-speed control has the advantage of reduced power consumption
and is the most efficient method of fan control.

The effect of speed on fan performance is that flow, pressure, and power
input are directly proportional to N, N², N³, respectively, where N is the
speed of the fan in (rpm).

Thus, reducing speed by say 70% reduces the capacity to 70%, the
pressure to about 50%, and the power input to about 35%.
 Fan Control
• The types of drives are (1) variable-speed steam
turbine, (2) Hydraulic coupling, (3)magnetic coupling,
(4) variable-speed dc motor, (5) multiple-seed ac
motor, and (6)electronically adjustable motor drive.

• The main disadvantage of variable-speed control is

that all these methods involve higher capital costs
than damper control, though the latter is more
efficient.
 Other Types of Fans

• Gas-recirculation fans recirculate gas from a point

between the economizer and air preheater back to
the bottom of the furnace as part of a steam-
temperature control system.

• Fans are a major source of noise in power plants.

To reduce the noise, they are often housed in thick
masonry acoustical enclosures or equipped with
inlet silencers (FD fans), or both.