WOLAITA SODO UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES

Department Of History & Heritage Management

Common Course: History Of Ethiopia & Horn (Hist. 1012)

BY
Mr. PAULOS BALCHA
 UNIT SEVEN
INTERNAL DEVELOPMENTS AND EXTERNAL
RELATIONS, 1941–1995(5hr)
Introduction
This unit examines major social, economic and political developments
in Ethiopia from 1941 to 1995. Specific issues the unit considers
include:
 consolidation of imperial power,
 opposition movements,
 the 1974 Revolution,
 the replacement of the monarchy by a Marxist leaning military
government called Derg.
 Post-1941 Imperial Period
Restoration and Consolidation of Imperial Power and External Relations

• Ethiopia and Britain(British Era)

• In the post-1941 period, Britain recognized Ethiopia’s status as a sovereign state with mutual
diplomatic accreditation(approval), but it continued to exercise the upper hand because
of :-
• the role it played in the liberation of Ethiopia from Fascist rule.
• the continuation of WWII (1939-45) which required adequate
provision for the Allied defense to win the war.
Accordingly, despite protests, the British considered Ethiopia
Occupied Enemy Territory Administration (OETA). The 1942 and
1944 agreements that Emperor Haile-Selassie I was forced to sign with
the British show the ascendancy of the latter.
 The first Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement, January 31, 1942
On January 31, 1942 the first Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement was signed. This
agreement:-
 recognized Ethiopia as a sovereign state.
 gave Britain a final authority over Ethiopia’s:-
o foreign affairs,
o territorial integrity,
o administration,
o finances,
o the military, and
o the police.
 The British minster in Ethiopia enjoyed precedence(superiority) over other foreign
diplomats in Ethiopia and Britain was to approve employment of other nationals by
Ethiopian government.
 Even more, British citizens held key posts in Ethiopian administration as advisors and
judges while at the same time they maintained total control over the country’s police
force, which was set up in February 1942.
  Additionally, British aircraft had exclusive aviation rights and the emperor had to
obtain approval from the Commander in Chief of the British Forces in East Africa,
Sir Philip Mitchell, to implement sovereign matters such as declaration of war or
state of emergency.
 Britain also decided details on disposal of Italian prisoners of war and
civilians and the administration of Italian properties in the country.
 In terms of finance, the British assumed control over currency and
foreign exchange as well as import-exports.
The Emperor resented such restrictions to his powers and made
some diplomatic engagements. With this and the help of the USA
and friends of Ethiopia such as Sylvia Pankhurst, Britain relaxed the
restrictions imposed upon the Ethiopian government.
 The Second Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement, December 1944.
By this agreement the emperor won some concessions from Britain.
 It lifted, the priority accorded to the British minster over all other foreign diplomats in Ethiopia.
 It allowed the Ethiopian government could now employ non-British foreign
personnel;
 it regained control over a section of the Addis Ababa-Djibouti railway, a vital line of external
communication.
• Control over this route assured Ethiopia free access to foreign goods and services including
arms and ammunitions.
 The British also agreed to evacuate their army from the region once they equip
Ethiopia’s military force- a task mandated to the British Military Mission to Ethiopia
(BMME).
o The BMME assisted the government of Ethiopia in organizing, training, and administration of its army until
1951.
o Haile-Selassie I Harar Military Academy was modeled after a British Military Academy called Sandhurst.

But Britain did not, however, yield to Ethiopia’s territorial demands of Eritrea & Ogaden to be united
with Ethiopia during the negotiation for the 1944 Agreement.
Ethiopian Quest for Restoration of Eritrea & Ogaden
and British Reaction
Both Eritrea and Ogaden were part of the Ethiopian empire before they fell into Italian
hands in 1890 and 1936 respectively.
But Ethiopia’s claims to the two territories were met with little sympathy from the British.
What was the British Calculation over the Region?
 Ogaden should be merged with the former Italian Somaliland and British Somaliland to form what
“Greater Somalia”.
they called
 the western and northern lowlands of Eritrea were intended by the British to be part of Sudan.
 wanted to integrate the Tigrigna speaking highlands of Eritrea with Tigray to form a separate
state.
Therefore, in September 1945 at the London conference of Allied powers Ethiopia’s
claims to Eritrea and Ogaden were rejected. The territorial issues were resolved only after
a decade.
 In 1948, the British left parts of Ogaden,
 in 1954, they withdrew from the region.
Eritrean Case
By the time the Emperor was raising the Ethiopian flag in Addis Ababa on May 5, 1941, the people in Asmara were
holding a demonstration calling for the reunification of Eritrea with Ethiopia. After the arrival, the British encouraged
division among Eritreans helped the formation of different political Parties.
o Unionist Party:- those who wanted a union with Ethiopia rallied behind the Unionists.
o The Liberal Progressive Party
o the Muslim League
 Both of them rallied people who sought for separation and independence.
In 1948, the question of Eritrea was referred to the UNSC by Britain, France, USA and USSR.
The UN appointed a commission of five men to find out the actual wishes of Eritreans as listed below.
 Burma, -Guatemala,
 Norway, -Pakistan and
 South Africa
But the Commission did not come to unanimity over the issue.
 Guatemala and Pakistan:-
 opted for Eritrean independence.
 South Africa and Burma:-
 recommended Eritrean federation with Ethiopia.
 Norway:-
oOn December 2, 1950, UN Resolution 390V granted the Federation of Eritrea with Ethiopia,
which came into effect in 1952.
oHowever, this arrangement did not satisfy both unionists and the independence bloc; each side
seeking to unmake the federation to fit their respective interests.
oOn November 14, 1962, the Eritrean Parliament, under pressure from the Ethiopian
government, resolved to dissolve the Federation and placed Eritrea under the imperial
umbrella(forcefully united).
Eritrean Liberation Movement (ELM)
the biggest military challenge to the imperial regime however, came from Eritrea. Eritrea was
integrated into the Ethiopian empire after independence from Italy.
The measure consolidated internal and external opposition to the union and led to the formation
of liberation movements based in Eritrea and abroad.
 Although some opposition movements had taken shape as far back as the late 1940s, they did
not seem to have much of an impact.
In 1958, a number of Eritrean exiles founded the Eritrean Liberation Movement (ELM) in Cairo.
In 1961, the ELM evolved into the Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF) or Jabaha in Arabic.
Hamid Idris Awate who fired the first bullet of the Eritrean armed struggle (he was the one who ‘started the
armed struggle’).
By 1966 the ELF challenged imperial forces throughout Eritrea.
In June 1970, two splinter group liberation movements emerged from the ELF.
1) the Popular Liberation Forces (PLF)
- It was formed in the Red Sea area led by Osman Salah Sabbe
2)The Salfi Natsenet Eritrea (Front for Eritrean Independence).
- It was emerged under the leadership of Isayas Afeworqi.
In early 1972, a new coalition of forces composed of Eritrean Liberation Front-Popular Liberation Front
(ELF-PLF) led to the founding of the Eritrean People’s Liberation Front (EPLF) or Sha'abiya in Arabic.
After a long and bloody civil war, the EPLF was able to establish its hegemony over the independence
movement.
Finally, the EPLF succeeded in achieving de facto independence in 1991 and which eventually was confirmed
 American Era
• Ethiopia and the USA
The first official contacts between Ethiopia and the USA traced back to 1903.
 In 1903 Ethiopia signed a Treaty of Friendship and Commerce with the USA delegate led under
Robert P. Skinner.
The relations between the two countries had been in the doldrums(sluggish) because of the Tripartite domination(Br, Fr
& Italy) of the Ethiopian diplomatic scene until the early 1940s.
Following the Second World War, two super-powers, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged.
In Ethiopia and the Horn, British pre-dominance in 1940s was replaced by the dominance of the
United States in the 1950s. Haile-Selassie I turned towards the USA because:-
 to ensure his sovereign political authority from British domination,
 to modernize his country;
 to consolidate his power,
American interest in the region began to grow especially after they acquired a communication
base in Asmara known as Radio Marina from the Italians.
 It was later renamed Qagnew after the Ethiopian force that fought on the side of the Americans in the Korean-War (1950-’53).
In 1943:- Yilma Deressa, :-
 was the vice Finance Minister of Ethiopian,
 visited the US;
 Aimed to request expertise to assist the country’s development.
In May 1944:- USA extended the Lend-Lease Agreement with Ethiopia
 USA sent a technical mission led by Perry Fellows.
At the beginning of 1945:- Emperor Haile-Selassie I & Franklin D. Roosevelt:-
 met in Egypt and discussed recognition of an American Sinclair Company to
prospect (overlook) for oil in Ogaden.
in the 1950s:-
By granting a concession to the company, Ethiopia sought to reassert its rights in the
region as much as it was eager to exploit a lucrative natural resource.
The renewed contact between the two countries was concretized with the signing of two
agreements in the 1950s.
A) In 1952:- Point Four Agreement:-
 enabled subsequent American assistance in education and public health was
signed. Point Four, as the organization came to be known, was involved
in:-
 Agricultural,
 Public Health,
 Education,
 Tourist and Public Administration training and awarding of
scholarships.
B) In 1953:- Ethio-US Treaty :-
 it granted a continued American use of the Qagnew base.
 USA, in return agreed to provide military assistance to Ethiopia.
Following the 1953 treaty, the US launched a military aid program named the American
Military Assistance Advisory Group (MAAG) to equip Ethiopia’s armed forces. The
MAAG :-
 was to train 60,000 Ethiopian soldiers in three separate divisions.
 between 1953 and 1968, it gave various forms of military training in the US for over 2,500 Ethiopians;
 It was in the army that American military assistance and training was most noticeable.
 By 1970, sixty percent of US military aid to Africa went to Ethiopia.
In the period between 1946 and 1972, US military aid was over 180 million US Dollar.
American gave aids like:-
 Anti-tank and anti-aircraft weapons,
 naval craft,
 infantry weapons and
 uniforms (some times like field jackets).
Other spheres that the Americans actively took part were:-
 Civil aviation,
 road transport, and
 American Aid in the field of Civil aviation
Ethiopian Air Lines (EAL):-
 Regarding its foundation, the discussion took place at San Francisco, side by side, conference of UN foundation(8 September to 15
December 1945),
 the Ethiopian delegation approached American delegates for assistance to form a civilian airline.
 the American Airline Company (TWA) agreed ,
o TWA (Transcontinental and Western World Airline)
 TWA established Ethiopian Air Lines (EAL) in 1946
o with five C-47 warplanes that served during WWII and
• of which 3 were converted to passenger version DC-3.
In 1962, EAL entered the jet age.
 meanwhile the shortage of trained Ethiopian personnel slowed the progress towards the Ethiopianization of the
EAL.
 For almost three decades since the signing of the agreement with the TWA in 1946, key
management and executive posts of the Ethiopian airline were seized by expatriates notably by
the Americans.
 in 1957 EAL got its first Ethiopian national pilot, Alemayehu Abebe, and
 in 1971 EAL got the first Ethiopian General Manager, Colonel Simeret Medhne .
The Imperial Board of Telecommunication
 was established between 1950 and 1952
 Was set up with the help of ITT organization
• ITT (International Telephone and Telegraph)
 Imperial High Way Authority (IHA):-
 was set up in January 1951;
o was Set up with financial loan from IBRD (International Bank for Reconstruction and Development) ;
o it based on the model of the US Bureau of Roads.
o it continued to be run by Americans until 1962.
o It facilitated an important role in national integration and the speedy transport together with :-
 EAL’s domestic network,
 communication services
US AID In the Field of Education
American presence was particularly evident in the university and high schools.
A variety of American scholarship programs under USAID and African-American Institute granted.
African Graduate Fellowship Program (AFGRAD) offered opportunities for many Ethiopians to go to the
United States for their second and third Degrees.
Meanwhile, many American volunteers came to Ethiopia to teach in Ethiopian schools under the Peace
 AID of Other Foreign countries
No States with significant
presence in Imperial
Ethiopia
1 Sweden entrusted to advice the Air force

2 Norway entrusted to advice navy

3 Germany and Israel trained and equipped the Police Force
4 the Swedes supported the Imperial Bodyguard

5 Indians trained by British entrusted the Harar Military Academy

6 Italians in 1956, the Qoqa Dam was built with war reparations by Italians; money
that the Italians agreed to pay. This was followed by the return of the Statue
of Judah in 1970, which Italians had taken during the occupation period.
7 Russians established good relations with Ethiopia through their exhibition, library around city hall,
post office, mathematics, and literature.
 Socio-Economic Developments

This period marked the low development of industrialization in the country even well into
the 20th century, agriculture remained the leading economic sector :-
-in providing employment for about 99% of the population,
-generating about 70 % of the national GDP and
- supplying almost 100% of the country’s income from export trade.
Therefore, the landholding that was a primary means of production was vital.
Generally, peasants in the northern and central highland parts of Ethiopia held land in the
form of rist.
In the 1970s, more than sixty-six percent of the peasant farmers cultivated less than 0.5
hectares.
 Comparative view of Tenancy(N Vs South)
Tenant population as percentage in Northern Tenant population as percentage in
Ethiopia South Ethiopia

It was only minority religious and It concerns almost entire populations

occupational castes who suffered from tenancy except regime’s agents and supports
in the north though varied from place to place.

in northern provinces, it was averagely 11 It was 37 percent in former Sidama

percent. Governorate General

It was 73 percent in Ilu Abba Bor,

It was 75 percent in Hararghe,

 Other form of Exploitations
 Corvee labour services, or “voluntary” contributions;
 Sharecrop tenancy
 the extreme taxation (discouraged peasants from maximizing production beyond subsistence levels).
o agricultural production remained lower than population growth rate
o Ethiopia ranked among the countries with very low per capita income.

The deteriorating condition of the country’s economy:-

 posed a threat to the social and political stability of the country and thus, the regime’s power.
 This coupled with external pressure from donors,
 induced the government to establish a Land Reform Committee in 1961.
 This later became the Land Reform and Development Authority that grew to become the Ministry of
Land Reform and Administration.
-Yet no meaningful reform was implemented because it would affect the vested economic and
political interests of landlords who at that time had taken hold of government.
In the 1960s and 1970s, commercial agriculture was expanding especially in:-
 southern Shewa,
 the Setit-Humera region on the Sudan border, and
 the Awash Valley.
What were the effects of commercial agriculture?
The mechanization of farming in these areas led to:-
 eviction of tenants.
 Profitability of agriculture led some landlords to work the land by themselves.
 Sometimes they rented the land under their ownership to whoever offered them better price in cash (as opposed to
the sharecropping tenancy practice); a price paid in advance and for longer periods.
Other Attempts of Gov’t to Improve Agrarian Productivity.
The government attempted to enhance the productivity of small farmers through launching comprehensive
agricultural package programs. It started at Oromia and Wolaita.
At Oromia:-
 Chilalo Agricultural Development Unit (CADU)
 was launched in 1967 through the initiative of the Swedish International Development Authority (SIDA)
 Wolayta Agricultural Development Unit (WADU).
 was supported by the World Bank.
The major objective of the package programs was demonstrating the effectiveness and efficiency of agricultural
Limitation of agricultural package programs:-
*the plan was conceived and implemented without undertaking the crucial task of land reform,
thereby leaving the targeted population (small peasant producers) at a disadvantageous position vis-a-
vis big landlords when it comes to the distribution of benefits.
Although few participant small farmers gained real benefit, farmers with large land-holdings took the lion’s
share of the benefits accrued from these projects.
* The unintended outcome of CADU was aggravating tenant eviction.
WADU initiated by the World Bank was more successful in promoting re-settlement.
Since the 1950s, the government formulated strategic plans for economic development and
this came in a series of five-year plans.
The First Five Year Plan (1957-1961):-
 targeted the development of infrastructure.
The Second Five Year Plan (1962-1967):-
 turned towards mining, manufacturing and electricity. The Plan also mentioned major
constraints to the development of the agricultural sector, although in very general terms.
The Third Five Year Plan (1968-1972):-
Following these plans, the Ethiopian economy witnessed some progress
particularly after 1950.
 Overall, domestic output increased nearly three and a half times and even better progress was
registered in manufacturing.
 The number of industrial enterprises grew to over four hundred and the industrial working force to
nearly sixty thousand.
 The electricity supply and infrastructure expanded considerably.
 Road and air communication enabled linkage of parts of the country.
 The emergence of new towns and the development of city life hastened urbanization.
 Moreover, public revenue and expenditure both grew nine and tenfold, respectively.
 Banking facilities expanded and the State Bank of Ethiopia was formed in 1942.
o In 1963, it was divided into the Commercial Bank and the National Bank of Ethiopia.
o Also a private bank, Addis Ababa Bank was established in 1963.
 The capital Addis Ababa became a continental capital when the UN Economic Commission for
Africa (ECA) and the Organization of African Unity (OAU) were established in 1958 and
1963, respectively.
Overall, there was relatively high level modernization that was reflected in many facets(sides) of life:
music, sports, cuisine(feeding styles) & dress styles.
Was Reform brought Remarkable Change for Majority Ethiopians??
 Yet, much of Ethiopia remained traditional with a low living standard and;
 Ethiopia was one of the least developed country in global terms.
 While the manufacturing sector contributed less than five percent of the national income,
 industrialization was spatially limited in the capital and its vicinity in addition only to
Asmara and Dire Dawa.
 The manufacturing sector only produced light consumer goods.
 industrial investment was also primarily of foreign origin.
For example, Wonji-Shewa and Metahara sugar factories which were largely
Dutch-owned. The Ethiopian share in capital was hardly more than twenty percent.
 Above all, the absence of meaningful land reform constrained the forces of
production in the countryside where the majority of the population lived.
 Consolidation of Autocracy
The post-liberation period witnessed the climax of the emperor’s power.
As in the period before(1930-1935), at the center of post-1941 national policies was the
state’s enduring interest to curb the political and economic bases of the power of regional
lords in favor of the monarch.
After he was restored to the throne in May 1941, Emperor Haile-Selassie embarked on
consolidating his power. This was made possible through:-
 the bureaucratization of government,
 the building of a national army and
 a centralized fiscal system.
In order to fill-in the expanding bureaucracy, education was promoted at both school and college levels. While primary schools
had already been established prior to 1935, secondary schools were opened in the post 1941 period.
Secondary School & Higher Education
Secondary Schools
 The two most popular and prestigious secondary schools in the Capital were :-
 The Haile-Selassie I Secondary School, founded in 1943,
 the General Wingate School, established in 1946.
 Asignificant number of the educated elites in the 1950s attended either of these two schools.

Higher Education
In 1950, the University College of Addis Ababa (UCAA) was inaugurated. This was followed by :-
the Engineering and Building College in Addis Ababa,
 the College of Agriculture in Alamaya (Hararghe), and
the Public Health College in Gondar.
In 1961, these various colleges were brought together to form the Haile- Selassie I University which again was re-
The post-1941 political order was dominated by Haile-Selassie that both the state
and the country came to be identified with the emperor.
State means Haile Selassie & Haile Selasie means State(Legislative, Executive,
Judiciary=Haile Selassie).
Significant urban landmarks such as schools, hospitals, theatre halls,
stadiums, main avenues and squares in the country bore the name of
the Emperor.
It was common for students to chant songs praising the emperor who
would then gift them with sweets or fruits on holidays such as Ethiopian
Christmas on January 7.
The emperor’s birthday and coronation day were national holidays where
large sum of money was spent.
Building National Army:-
strengthening of the military and security apparatus was another major pre-occupation of the imperial
regime . Highest budgetry allocation was granted for the ministries of Defense and Interior.
1944/45 budget figure:-
 Total budget was 38 Million
 11 Million allocated for Ministry of Interior
• 5 Mill for security, and
• 8 million went for war.
In 1967 figure:-
 Total budget allocation was 400 million ETB.
 over 80 million allocation for Ministry of Defense and
 nearly 60 million allocation was for Ministry of Interior(security purpose).
Ironically although the emperor anticipated that the military that was composed mainly of the army,
the police force and the Imperial Bodyguard would suppress opposition to the regime, they
themselves rebelled more than once- a failed coup in 1960 and the more successful one in 1974.
The traditional aristocracy, although made to enjoy urban and rural property, had lost most of
its political privileges.
What were the Promotion Criterias of the Emperior?
 Based on the traditional shum-shir, the emperor appointed and demoted his
ministers, most of whom had humble origins. In 1943, the emperor appointed
eleven ministers:-
to draft laws and
to appoint junior officials and cabinet members(allowed in 1966, but it to be approved by the emperor).
but their subservience to the monarch was stated inexplicit terms.

Prime Minsters:-
 from 1942 , who served as prime minister was Ras Bitweded Mekonnen Endalkachew.
 Next prime minister was Mekonnen Habte-Wold (1949-58),
 The last prime minister was Aklilu Habte-Wold (1961-74),
Ministry of Finance:-
 was left for Yilma Deressa.
Tsehafe-Tizaz Wolde-Giorgis Wolde-Yohannis
 was the most powerful of the ministers in the post-1941 political order
 who headed the strategic Ministry of Pen in the period 1941-55.
 was powerful and smart.
 He used his powers, at times, for political intrigues against the other ministers.
 Besides, he, held the portfolios of Justice and Interior on various occasions that he was
the defacto prime minister in the above stated period.
 His access to the emperor and the latter’s trust in him made him so powerful.
 Opposition to the Tsehafe Tezaz was organized by Mokonen Habtewold, the Minister
of Finance, who finally had sacked him from the post in 1955.
Members of the crown council were:-
 an advisory body to the emperor
 members of the royal family,
 leading nobility and
 the Abun .
The Emperor’s private cabinet:-
 was set up in 1959, as a high-level advisory body and
 developed into agency doing intelligence.
 1955 Constitution
The 1955 Constitution :-
 Promulgated the power of emperor Haile Selassie
 was a revised constitution of 1931 by emperor Haile Selassie
 Drafted by committee such as:-
 American advisers like John Spencer
 Tsehafe-Tizaz Wolde-Giorgis Wolde- Yohannis and
 Tsehafe-Tizaz Aklilu Habte-Wold
 provided the basis for the consolidation of absolutism in Ethiopia more than 1931.
 About 36 articles of the 1955 constitution dealt with the question of imperial succession and the emperor’s privileges.
 The constitution clearly states the Emperor’s personality as sacred, his dignity inviolable and his power
indisputable.
 provided some Human rights like speech and press, but nullifyied by phrases like within law
limits.
 granted property qualification based universal adult suffrage:-
 in which elected chamber of deputies served for four years term and
 the senate served for six years terms.
In the final analysis, however, neither the constitution nor the Parliament that it created put a limit to
the autocratic power of the emperor.
He was the head of the three branches of government:
o the executive,
o the legislative and
o the judiciary.
The idea of a constitutional monarchy was never materialized.
Human rights and civic liberties were restricted and violated.
Regional identities, needs and feelings were ignored in the interest of centralization.
As the years progressed, the emperor started to dedicate his attention to foreign affairs.
 He played a significant role in the Non-Aligned Movement and
 Dedicated in the process of formation of African unity (which formed later in 1963) and
 The emperor,thus detached from the domestic affairs that he failed to see the signs of trouble at home.
 7.1.3 Oppositions and the Downfall of the Monarchical Regime

Plots and Conspiracies

Various sectors of the society opposed the imperial rule before the 1974 .
 before the 1960s, it took in the form of plots and conspiracies.
 after 1960 coup, it came more openly, b/c it gained wider mass support.
Some leaders of the resistance movement against Fascist rule were opposed to the restoration of the
emperor. Why?
 to the throne for fleeing the country when it needed him most whereas
 others wished for a republican government.
 the privileges and rewards accorded to exiles and
 people who served the colonial administration exacerbated the resentment against the monarchy leading to
rebellions.
The three patriots who opposed Emperor Haile Sellassie after his return from exile were:-
 Belay Zeleke,
 Blatta Takele Wolde- Hawaryat &
 Bitweded Negash Bezabih
Dejazmach Belay Zeleke
Was one of notable patriot
resented the fact that he was not given a stature recognizing his contribution to the Resistance.
 the emperor made Belay governor of a southern province of Gojjam because he wanted to remove him from his base in
Bichena in eastern Gojjam.
 Belay rejected the offer and was even more dissatisfied at dignified positions of Ras Haylu Belaw (Governor General of
Gojjam) and Bitweded Mengesha Jembere (Deputy Governor General of Gojjam).
in February 1943, forces from Debra-Marqos and Addis Ababa invaded Belay’s district.
After fighting for three months, Belay surrendered, was detained in Fiche from where he tried to escape and
return to Gojjam a few months later, but was captured with his brother Ejigu.
Taken back to the capital, Belay was finally hanged in public.
• Bitweded Negash Bezabih
was grandson of King Tekle Haimanot of Gojjam.
He had reached the rank of Vice-Minister and
had been appointed President of the Senate after liberation or before his conspiracy.
In the process, some military officers like Beqele Anasimos were attracted to the plot,
but Dejach Geresu Duki, exposed them.
Finally, the plotters were tried and sentenced to various terms of imprisonment after being
arrested during one of their clandestine meetings.
Blatta Takele Wolde-Hawaryat (1941,1946,1969)
The most fierce and sustained (non stop) opposition to the emperor came from him,
he hatched (marked) a plot in constitutionalist terms using Yohannes Iyasu as front and with
the support of some contingents of the army. But the plot was uncovered and he was detained.
In 1945, Blatta Takele Wolde-Hawaryat was released and appointed as deputy Afe-nigus.
in 1946, again he was involved in another plot and detained up to 1954.
Upon his release in 1954, he once again became Vice Interior Minister and Afe-nigus.
On November 17, 1969, he tried to assassinate the emperor, but his final plot failed and he
barricaded himself in his house and engaged in a shoot-out with the police in which he was
 The 1960s Coup D’Etat
The most serious challenge to the emperor’s authority came in 1960 in the
form of a coup attempt.
The abortive coup d'etat of 1960 was led by the Neway brothers:- *Brigadier
General Mengistu and *Germame.
Garmame Neway:-
 attended Haile-Sellasie I Secondary School;
 he received his B.A and M.A Degrees from Columbia University of Wisconsin;
 he was also president of Ethiopian Students Association at his University;
 He became the president of a clandestine alumni(graduates) association of his former school in
his return to Ethiopia.
 He was assigned as governor of Wolayta,
 but Germame’s activities were alarming to the regime.
o He monitored police activities,
o introduced a settlement program in which he distributed government holdings to landless peasants;
o ordered written tenancy agreements.
o He was then summoned back to Addis Ababa for explanation.
However, unable to criticize Germame’s intentions Haile-Selassie sent him to Jijiga where he
continued as radical reformer.
 He oversaw the digging of new wells while improving the old, set up clinics, schools etc.
 But his actions were not liked by the regime which convinced Germame of the need for change.
Together with his brother General Mengistu Neway, the head of the Imperial
Bodyguard, and others, the two brothers started detaining ministers and other members of
the nobility when the emperor was on state visit in Brazil.
 They also took over the radio station and spoke about the backwardness of the country
than newly independent African states.
The crown prince Asfawosen was declared to be a salaried constitutional monarch.
The prince delivered a speech on Radio Addis explaining the rationale of the coup in which
he promised the establishment of new factories, schools etc.
On December 14, 1960, a new government was declared:-
 The crown prince Asfawosen was declared to be a salaried constitutional monarch.
 that was to be headed by Ras Emiru Haile-Selassie.
 Major General Mulugeta Buli was chosen as chief of staff of the armed forces;
 Brigadier-General Tsige Dibu was to lead the Imperial Bodyguard and the Police Force,
and
 Colonel Workneh Gebeyehu was security chief.
• Why 1960 Coup d'état Failed?
 the army and the air force refused to side with the rebels ;
 with the support of the Americans and the blessing of the patriarch, the loyalists led
by General Merid Mengesha, Ras Asrate Kassa etc attacked the plotters.
The rebels asked for a cease-fire, which the loyalists rejected.
 Finally, they had to run for their lives but only after killing the ministers and other
dignitaries they had detained at Geneta L'uel palace.
In the meantime, the emperor entered the capital.
Finally, Garmame died fighting in the outskirts of the capital and Mengistu was
captured and hanged after trial.
The regime made some concessions after the failed coup attempt, but failed to
address the root causes that triggered the coup itself. Thus, opposition to the
imperial regime was only to grow stronger leading to the outbreak of the 1974
Revolution.
b.Peasant Rebellions
The post-liberation period also witnessed growing opposition among peasants in
different parts of the country against Haile-Selassie’s regime thereby giving the
opposition a broader dimension.
Peasant revolts, although on a small scale, were especially numerous in the
southern territories, where the imperial government had traditionally rewarded
its supporters with land grants thereby reducing the local peasantry into tenancy. It
is not possible in the space of a brief essay such as this to discuss the numerous
peasant rebellions in the entire country. But an effort will be made to canvas major
eruptions in the country with the intent of showing some of the deficiencies of the
system.
•The Woyane Rebellion
The first peasant resistance against imperial rule took place in Tigray, known in
history as the Woyane rebellion.
-The term Woyane means 'revolt' in Tigrigna language.
Causes of the Rebellion
A combination of long- running problems
 stemming from the inequities of the system
 Peasants felt victimized by corruption
 general administrative inefficiency
short-term factors.
 Peasants were victimized greed of the Territorial Army unit stationed in the region
 The peoples of Wejjerat and Raya-Azebo had wanted to maintain their local
autonomy that the government violated.
• Another cause for the rebellion was the 1942 land decree which
forced peasants to pay tax arrears whose collection was
problematic. This rebellion had the support of members of the nobility
who perceived their position to be endangered by the expansion of
central authority.
• The nobility took advantage of the popular discontent against
government officials and their militias and put strong resistance against
government forces thanks to the able leadership of Blatta Haile-
Mariam Reda.
Finally, the government’s retribution (revenge) against the Raya-
Azebo on allegation(contention) of cattle raids on Afar territory
sparked the general rebellion.
As such, the Woyane rebellion was as a continuation of the government’s
punitive campaign against the region’s peasants in the late 1920s.
The dress rehearsal for the major confrontation took place on January 11,
1942 where the imperial force was defeated and humiliated by Raya-Azebo
peasants.
On May 22, 1943, the rebels scored an astounding victory fighting an even
larger and well-equipped government army in Addi Awuna, 15 kms away
from Hewane in southern Tigray.
October 14, 1943, soon small towns around Mekelle like Qwiha and
Enda-Iyyasus, and Meqelle itself fell in rebel hands.
They then expanded to Kilte-Awlalo, Wuqiro etc in eastern Tigray. Such
initial advances of the rebel forces, however, did not last long.
 In October 1943, the imperial army under the command of Abebe Aregay
with the support of the British Royal Air Force crushed the rebellion.
Measurements of Imperial Government
 The government exiled or imprisoned the leaders of the revolt.
 The emperor took reprisals (revenges) against peasants suspected of supporting
the Woyane.
 the Wejjerat and Raya-Azebo lost their autonomous status, and
 Raya- Azebo was made part of Wollo.
 Meanwhile, the imperial regime reversed the 1942 land decree,
 The Yejju Rebellion
Overt dissidence(rebellion) of Yejju peasants in Wollo during Haile-Selassie’s rule
occurred three times (1948, 1950s & 1970).
In 1948, peasants rose against the system after their appeal against land alienation
was ignored by the government.
With Qegnazmach Melaku Taye and Unda Mohammed in the forefront, peasants
stormed and freed inmates held in Woldya prison.
The nech lebash were called to quell the unrest and eventually the leaders were
publicly flogged.
Throughout the 1950s, localized skirmishes between government forces and
peasants expanded to Qobo, Hormat, Tumuga, Karra- Qore etc led by
prominent figures like Ali Dullatti (Abba Jabbi).
In 1970, peasants revolted against the introduction of mechanized agriculture that
encroached on pasture land and killed Qegnazmach Abate Haylu who was a member
of the local nobility and direct beneficiary of the new development.
 The Gojjam Peasant Rebellion, 1968

Causes of the Rebellion

 It was caused by the government’s attempt to implement new tax on agricultural produce,
which the parliament adopted in November 1967.
Antecedent of the 1968 Rebellion.
• This rebellion was not, however, without its antecedents(past history).
• The nobles of Gojjam refused to accept any limitation upon the prevailing land tenure
system and successfully battled the regime over this issue.
Although the expansion of central authority by appointed officials and the development of
infrastructural works required a parallel increase in tax payments, it was fiercely resisted by the local
gentry.
Against this background, the then governor of Gojjam, Dejach Kebede Tesema, initiated land
assessment and land classification to determine taxation.
He then raised tax rate from what it had been in the pre-1935 period.
In 1950, a revolt broke out in Mota, Qolla-Daga Damot and Mecha districts led by people like Dejach
Abere Yimam.
As a result of the Rebellions:-
 tax rate was reduced by 1/3,
 Kebede was removed and replaced by Haylu Belew, a hereditary ruler of Gojjam.
 Later, Haylu’s Shewan successor named Dejjazmach Tsehayu Enqu-Selassie forced contributions to build the emperor’s statue in Debra
Marqos.
 Besides, peasants were ordered to pay tax arrears and register their arms with fees.
 Meanwhile, peasants were victimized by the ravages committed by the nech lebash in the pretext of eradicating banditry.
What was the Immediate cause Sparked 1968 Rebellion?
an attempt was made to introduce the new agricultural tax;
this finally sparked the 1968 uprising led by veterans of the resistance period(1935-1941), who had taken
titles for themselves such as leul and fitawrari.
Results of the 1968 Rebellion
 The government was forced to transfer Dejazmach Tsehayu to Kafa,
 declare amnesty,
 abandon the new tax, and
 cancel all tax arrears of taxation going back to 1950.
Despite these concessions, the rebellion spread throughout Gojjam except Agaw-Midir and Metekel, which alarmed the
government.
 Taxation

1942 another proclamation was issued which established a uniform rate of

taxation to be paid in official currency.
To this effect, land was classified into three categories: -
- cultivated,
- semi-cultivated and
-uncultivated.
 In 1947 education tax had been introduced.
In 1959 a health tax was introduced. These act were, imposed on land.
 The Gumuz Rebellion(Abba Tone)
Came to be known as Abba Tone, because it named after one of its famous leaders, Abba Tone.
The Gumuz staged major armed rebellion against the regime of Emperor Haile-Selassie in
1952/3.
 Abba Tone served the imperial regime with a position of Abba Qoro (head /chief of a sub-
district) responsible for:-
 collection of taxes,
 maintenance of law and order ;
 mobilization of the people for public works in time of peace and war.
What were Its root causes?
 Abba Tone armed uprising had its roots in administrative injustice(mal-
administration), land and taxation policies(heavy taxation) of the imperial regime.
Abba Tone sided with the discontented local people.
Although Abba Tone reported the complaints of the peasants to higher government
Meanwhile, the Gumuz were determined not to pay taxes unless the
government took appropriate measures to address their concerns.
Tax collectors came backed by Police force to force the people pay land tax.
Finally, an open clash broke out in places like Gaba Robi and Tullu Lubu and
developed into open rebellion against the government and a general breakdown
of law and order followed.
initially Abba Tone, obtained an upper hand over the government’s
expeditionary forces.
Finally rebellion was crushed because:-
 the government’s force reinforced with more weapons(outgunned) and
manpower(outnumbered).
 Abba Tone was captured and later released on pardon.
 The Gedeo Peasant Rebellion, 1960

the major source of peasant discontent in Gedeo was:-

 land alienation.
 The dispossession of land
 land expropriation by members of the northern nobility for coffee farms(1960s, it worsen)
o Example, the emperor’s daughter Princess Tenagneworq.
It aggravated following the introduction of land measurement in the 1920s.
This coupled with the denigration(disparagement) of their culture exacerbated Gedeo’s resentment
against the system.
The outbreak of Struggle
Petitions and appeals to higher authorities to curb the continued land alienation proved futile.
The peasants refused to pay erbo (1/4 of agricultural produce payable to landlords),
armed themselves with traditional weapons like spears, swords and arrows and clashed with the imperial
army at Michille in 1960. That is why it was known as the Michille rebellion.
Over a hundred peasants lost their lives in the fight while much of their property was destroyed.
 Finally, Afe Nigus Eshete Geda, fined the elders locally called the hayicha accused of supporting the
 The Bale Peasant Rebellion

It lasted from 1963 to 1970, presented the most serious challenge to the Ethiopian
government.
It has multifaceted causes.
 the introduction of the qalad that initiated land measurement in 1951 degraded peasants into tenancy on their
own land.
 Peasants also suffered from high taxation, religious and ethnic antagonism that reached to unprecedented
level after the appointment of Warqu Enqu- Selassie as governor of the territory in 1963.
 Religious and ethnic antagonism
o the predominantly Muslim population resented the imposition of alien rule from the northern and central highlands parts of the
empire and thus,
o political and cultural domination by Christian settlers.
 Further, the government of Somalia extended material and moral support to the rebels as part of its strategy
of re-establishing a “Greater Somalia”.
The Outbreak of Revolt
The revolt broke out in El Kerre led by people like Kahin Abdi.
Initially, rebel groups conducted hit-and-run raids against military garrisons and police
stations separately.
Soon, however, they tried to coordinate their military activities under an umbrella
organization named the Western Somali Liberation Front (WSLF), engaging in
conventional wars against government forces.
Haile Selassie tried to win loyalty of the people by developing alliances with notable
Oromo leaders.
Although this strategy enabled the emperor to recruit some members of local ruling
houses in the service of the imperial system, it failed to contain the popular revolt.
, it quickly spread to Wabe, Dallo and Ganale under the able leadership of Waqo
Gutu and others.

Further, the rebels killed Girazmach Beqele Haragu of Adaba and
Fitawrari Wolde-Mika’el Bu’i of Dodola in 1965 and 1966
respectively.
In December 1966, the government put Bale under the martial rule of
Wolde-Selassie Baraka, the head of the army’s Fourth Division.
• In 1967, the army, police, Territorial Army (beherawi tor), settler militia
(nech lebash) and volunteers (wedo zemach) launched massive operations
against the province.
• Meanwhile, the rebels lost support from the government of Somalia after
Mohammed Siad Barre took over power in 1969 and found it
impossible to sustain their campaigns in southeastern Ethiopia.
• The rebellion ended in 1970s after some of its popular leaders including
 C. Movements of Nations and
Nationalities
Oppositions to the imperial rule did not come only from individuals,
peasants, students and the army.
The question of nations and nationalities for equality, freedom and
autonomy was also assuming a significant development towards the end of
the imperial regime. Among the movement of nations and nationalities of this
period, the Mecha-Tulama movement of the Oromo deserves a special treatment
here.
Mecha-Tulama movement
It was formed in January 1963, in the form of welfare association called Mecha-
Tulama Welfare Association (MTWA).
It was formed with the objective of improving the welfare of the Oromo
through the expansion of educational, communication and health facilities
Founding members of the association included :-
 Colonel Alemu Qitessa
 Colonel Qedida Guremessa,
 Lieutenant Mamo Mezemir,
 Beqele Nedhi, and
 Haile-Mariam Gemeda.
 Brigadier General Taddesse Birru (in the next two years, more elites attracted).
 Although the Mecha-Tulama Association had its root in the will and commitment of a few Oromo
elites to mobilize support for the development of Oromo inhabited territories, it soon transformed
into a pan-Oromo movement coordinating countrywide peaceful resistance against the regime.
This is evidenced by the successful rallies the association organized in Gindeberet, Dandi, Arsi
(Dera and Iteyya), etc.
The association raised contentious(quarrelsome) issues such as land and expressed its
dissatisfaction with the condition of the Oromo in the society during mass rallies as well as in
private meetings.
The regime was alarmed by the activities of the association and determined to curb the movement
Meanwhile, leaders of the association plotted to assassinate the emperor and change the
regime on the anniversary of his coronation in November 1966, but the plot was foiled by
security forces.
This coupled with a bombing incident in one of the cinemas at the capital in which the
association was implicated led the government to move swiftly and violently to ban the
association’s activities.
Mecha-Tulama was dissolved in 1967 following the imprisonment and killing of its
prominent leaders such as Mamo Mezemir and Haile-Mariam Gemeda by the regime’s
forces.
 Brigadier General Taddese Birru was captured while retreating to the bush and eventually
sentenced to death.
-Later the death sentence was commuted to life imprisonment and he was exiled to Gelemso
where he stayed until the outbreak of the 1974 revolution.
In 1975 the Derg executed Tadesse on allegation(charge) of instigating armed struggle.
The brutal suppression of the Mecha-Tulama Association,
however, did not end the struggle of the Oromo for justice,
equality and liberty.
In 1971, an underground movement called the Ethiopian National Liberation
Front (ENLF) was formed by Oromo elites, perhaps by former members of the
association.
The Front maintained contact with student circles and other opposition figures in
and outside Addis Ababa.
The aim was to coordinate local resistance towards a common goal of liberation,
although thwarted(frustrated) by the regime’s security forces.
The regime’s unwillingness to accommodate the legitimate and peaceful demands of various
Oromo groups for equality within Ethiopia transformed Oromo nationalism into militancy for
self-determination.
In 1973, some members of the ENLF and other Oromo nationalists formed the Oromo
Liberation Front (OLF) with the aim of establishing an independent State of Oromia.
The following year(1974), OLF launched an offensive against the imperial regime in
Hararghe.
After the revolution, OLF increased its military activities because the Derg would not allow
the Oromo to elect their rulers and use their language in schools and newspapers.
 Accordingly, the armed struggle which set off in the eastern part of Ethiopia extended to other
Oromo inhabited areas such as Arsi and Wallagga.
 D. The Ethiopian Student Movement (ESM)

The regime was not only challenged in the provinces. In fact, the Ethiopian
student movement was building up in the center as a strong opposition against
the regime.
 Although the movement started within the university, students had turned
into a radical opposition and were already marching on the streets from 1965
onwards and was spreading to the high schools by 1968.
 The parliament’s rejection of tenancy reform bill in 1964 triggered student
protest in the following year demanding “Land to the Tiller.”
Factors that contributed to sharpening the students’ ideology include
 the 1960 coup,
 students’ increased awareness of the country’s socio-economic
and political conditions vis a vis other African countries which
they learned from scholarship students from different parts of
Africa, and
 the Ethiopian University Service (EUS), launched in 1964.
• Launched in 1964, the EUS required the students to teach and offer other
services to the community usually in the provinces.
In 1964, the emergence of a radical group of students with Marxist-
Leninist leanings known as “the Crocodiles” marked the
increased militancy of the students.
Side by side with the radicalization of the movement, students formed:-
 in 1962 , the University College Union (UCU) to coordinate their activities;
 in 1963,the National Union of Ethiopian University Students
(NUEUS)
 in 1965,the Main Campus Student Union (MCSU) and
 in 1968 the University Student Union of Addis Ababa (USUAA) with its
paper Tagel (Struggle) were established.
Outside the country, students were organized under :-
 the Ethiopian Students Union in North America (ESUNA) with its paper called
Challenge and
 the Ethiopian Students Union in Europe (ESUE) with its paper Tateq (Gird yourself)
in the USA and Europe.
ESUNA and ESUE gave ideological support to MCSU and USUAA.
What were the major issues students raised?
Throughout the 1960s, a rallying cry of student demonstrations was “land to
the tiller”, but other local and global issues were also raised.
 students protested against the minority white regime in Southern Rhodesia
(Zimbabwe) in 1968,
 at other times they expressed their solidarity with the people of Vietnam.
 In the national arena, students protested against Shola Destitute
Concentration Relief Camp and
 students protested the holding of expatriate sponsored fashion show at
the university campus, in 1966 and
 educational reform(Educational Sector Review) in 1969.
 In 1969, students demanded the respect of the rights of nations and
nationalities,
-What was the reaction of the government?
the government was started taking measures against leaders of the movement
ranging from press campaigns to detentions and killings.
the regime deported large number of students to the torrid Gibe river valley in
1972.
Was it calmed students struggle?
 students’ opposition was aggravated to armed hijacking of transport aircrafts.
 By early 1970s, the student movement coupled with other under-running issues
such as:-
• rising inflation,
• growing discontent of urban residents,
• corruption and
• widespread and yet covered-up famine especially in Wollo all prepared a fertile
 7.2. The Derg Regime (1974-1991)

The mass uprising that finally put an end to the old regime came in February 1974.
From January 8 to 15, 1974, soldiers and non-commissioned officers stationed at a frontier
post in Negele- Borana mutinied protesting their bad living conditions. In the process, they
detained the commander of the ground forces (Debela Dinsa) who was sent to pacify the situation.
 The soldiers made the commander eat their food and drink their water so that he
could witness the kind of life they were living.
Also, soldiers of different units mutinied demanding salary increment and political and
economic reforms. Some of the units mutinied were:-
 the Second Division in Asmara,
 the Fourth Division in Addis Ababa and
 the Air Force in Debre-Zeyt (Bishoftu)
The various units then set up a coordinating committee which became a
precursor of the later Derg, in order to coordinate their actions.
Teachers throughout the country protested against the implementation of
an education reform program known as Sector Review, which they deemed
was disadvantageous for the poor and biased against them.
Although the Ethiopian Teachers Association (ETA) had coordinated
demonstrations against the program already in December 1973, it called for a
general strike demanding a number of other social reforms on 18 February1974.
On the same day, taxi drivers went on strike demanding increase in
transport fees (fifty percent) due to rise of petrol prices that followed the
Arab-Israeli Yom Kippur war of 1973.
Students, workers and the unemployed youth joined the protests.
The protesters attacked vehicles particularly buses, and luxury private
automobiles.
The Reaction of Imperial Government and the Protesters.
The government responded by:-
 suspending the Sector Review;
 reducing petrol prices; and
 raising the salaries of soldiers.
In spite of this, the uprisings continued and:-
 on February 28, the cabinet of Prime Minister Aklilu Habte-Wold
resigned.
oHe was replaced by Endalkachew Mekonnin
• Endalkachew was an Oxford-educated member of the aristocracy.
• the protests continued though he promised to introduce reforms,
including constitutional reform and included highly educated and
On March 8, the Confederation of Ethiopian Labor Unions
(CELU) staged a successful general strike. It was only a matter of
time before the strikes and demonstrations spread to the provinces.
A major popular demonstration was held on April 20 by about
100,000 Muslim residents of the capital and their Christian
sympathizers who came out demanding religious equality.
Measures of an independent Soldiers
In the meantime, the soldiers, through their various committees, were also taking
their own measures.
The coordinating committee of soldiers and Non-Commissioned Officers
(NCOs) set up in February were joined by officers, such as Colonel Alem
Zewd Tessema of the Airborne Brigade, who then became its leader.
In April 1974, the Committee, perhaps with involvement of Endalkachew
Mekonin, arrested Aklilu Habte Wold and hundreds of other high-ranking
officials of the regime.
The Minister of Defense, Lt. General Abiy Abebe, who had noticed the
growing power of the Committee as well as series of demonstrations and
strikes, set up what was called the National Security Commission to restore
order and respect for the authority of the government.
The leading opposition against the Endalkachew cabinet were the
students.
Not only did they stage their own demonstrations against the cabinet
but they also encouraged other sectors of society to join the
revolutionary tide.
Nevertheless, the students were less organized to achieve their goals
and eventually, the soldiers hijacked the struggle.
The Formation of the Derg= Committee
The Derg was officially formed on June 28, 1974 when it held its first
meeting at the headquarters of the Fourth Division.
“Derg” a Ge’ez word for “Committee” was the shorter name given to the
Coordinating Committee of representatives from various military units:
 the Armed Forces,
 the Police and
 the Territorial Army.
However, officers above the rank of major were suspected of supporting
the old regime and therefore were not included.
Hence, Major Mengistu Haile-Mariam of the Third Division of
Hararghe, and the vice-chairman, Major Atnafu Abate of the Fourth
Division, came to be key figures.
For some time the Derg exercised power parallel with the Endalkachew’s cabinet
and the emperor tied up in a dual state, trying to keep a balance between the two.
on August 1, 1974, Endalkachew was imprisoned and replaced by Lej
Mikael Emiru as prime minister.
Meanwhile, the Derg continued arresting other members of the regime whom it
considered obstacles to the revolution.
The Derg also tried to define its ideology and declared the motto, “Ethiopia
Tikdem” (“Ethiopia First”), (“Without any bloodshed”). “Yaleminim Dem”
The Derg continued systematically working to isolate the emperor and
removing the supports of his imperial power.
A strong propaganda campaign was launched against the regime and the
widespread corruption of government functionaries.
Two enterprises, Anbessa Bus Company and the St. George Brewery in
which the emperor and the imperial family had more than fifty percent stake
were nationalized.
Moreover, a British documentary film disclosing the hidden horrors of the
Wollo famine precisely served the awaited interest of the Derg.
Finally, on 12 September 1975, Emperor Haile-Selassie I was deposed and
detained at the Fourth Division headquarters.
The Derg then proclaimed itself the Provisional Military Administrative Council
(PMAC) and assumed full powers.
All strikes and demonstrations were immediately banned. Very soon, civilian revolutionaries,
who had started calling for the establishment of a provisional people’s government, started
gathering around the Confederation of Ethiopian Labor Unions (CELU), the University
teachers’ group known as Forum, and the students.
Sections of the military, the Army Engineers Corps, the First Division (the former
Bodyguard), and the Army Aviation opposed what was to become a military
government.
However, the Derg was not prepared to make compromise on any ground. Instead, it
imprisoned the leaders of CELU and a leader of the Forum group.
On October 7,1975, a militant group within the Army Engineering Corps was violently
crushed in a tank assault which took the lives of five soldiers and there was massive arrest
afterwards. The motto of “Ethiopia First, without any bloodshed” thus failed as early as
then.
On 23 November,1975, an even more violent phase commenced. Lieutenant General
Aman Mikael Andom, chairman of the PMAC was shot dead after a
disagreement within the Derg over the Issue of Eritrea.
-Aman Mikael Andom who was of Eritrean origin believed in peaceful approach against some
radical members of the Derg particularly the First Vice-Chairman Mengistu Haile-
Mariam, who advocated for a military solution.
The killing continued and the Derg announced execution of some 52 prominent members
of the old regime who had been detained and half a dozen other leaders of the military units
who had opposed the Derg as a “political decision.”
 7.2.2. Attempts at Socio-Economic Reform

The Derg took a series of measures that aimed at fundamentally transforming the country.
In December 1974, what was called the Edget Behibiret Zemecha (Development Through
Co- operation Campaign) was inaugurated. In this campaign, all high school and university
students and their teachers were to be sent to the countryside to help transform the life of
peasants through programs such as literacy campaigns and the implementation of the awaited
land reform proclamation. However, the campaign was opposed by most of the civilian left as
a system that the Derg designed to remove its main opponents from the center.
To appease the oppositions, the Derg changed its slogan of “Ethiopia First” to “Ethiopian
Socialism.”
It also adopted slogans like Ethiopian Unity or Death, Revolutionary Motherland or
Death, and later Every Thing to the War Front, Produce while Fighting or Fight While
Producing, etc.
In 1975, banks and insurance companies were nationalized following a series of
proclamations.
-Over seventy private commercial and industrial companies were then nationalized.
 Finally, in March 1975 the Derg made a radical land reform proclamation, which
abolished all private land ownership and set the upper limit on family holdings at ten
hectares.
*The proclamation also provided the establishment of peasant associations, which
were to be implemented with the cooperation of the zemach.
On 26 July1975, another proclamation nationalized all urban lands and extra houses.
In April 1976, PMAC proclaimed National Democratic Revolution Program and set up the
Provisional Office for Mass Organization and Affairs (POMOA) with the objective of
organizing and raising the political consciousness of the masses. The campaigns
showed Derg’s belief in mass mobilization to achieve a cause.
There was the “Green Campaign” of 1978 aimed at bringing about rapid economic
development, the literacy campaign aimed at eradicating illiteracy, and
There was also “Red Star Campaign” of 1982 that aimed at solving the Eritrean problem.
Of these campaigns, only the literacy campaign registered some degree of success. The land
reform proclamation did put an end to landlord exploitation but it failed to make the
peasant master of his land because now the state took over as ultimate owner, with the
peasant associations serving as its agents.
The cooperatives only led to monopolistic government enterprises such as Ersha Sebil
Gebeya Dirijit (Agricultural Marketing Corporation), resettlements and villagization.
On the other hand, nationalization killed private initiative and introduced a highly
bureaucratized management of resources. The state, with its significant role and growing
proportion now gained tremendous capacity to reward or penalize.
“White Terror” Vs “Red Terror”
The Derg used peasant associations to control the countryside and the urban
dwellers’ associations (kebele) to control the towns.
The kebele became battleground when the struggle between the Derg and the
Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Party (EPRP) (formed in Berlin in 1972) reached its
bloodiest phase in 1976/7.
The EPRP targeted kebele leaders and assassinated them while they in turn led the
government’s campaign of terror against the EPRP called the “Red Terror”, as
opposed to the “White Terror” of the EPRP.
Initially, the leftist opposition to the Derg came from two rival Marxist-Leninist
political organizations called the EPRP and the All-Ethiopian Socialist Movement
(acronym in Amharic, Meison).
In the meantime, the Derg pushed by the dominant leftist political culture
systematically abandoned “Ethiopian socialism” and embraced Marxism-Leninism.
With the setting up of the POMOA, Derg proclaimed the National Democratic Revolution
Program, which was the Chinese model for socialist revolution and had identified feudalism,
imperialism, and bureaucratic capitalism as the three main enemies of the people.
In a few months, Derg’s leftist political organization known as Abyotawi Seded
(Revolutionary Flame) was launched.
In 1977, an alliance called Emaledeh (the Union of Ethiopian Marxist–Leninist
Organizations) was established as prelude to the formation of one vanguard party.
-It was composed of Marxist Leninist Revolutionary Organization (MLRO, or in
its more common Amharic acronym Malerid), Meison, Abyotawi Seded (Revolutionary
Flame), Wezlig (Workers League) founded by a one-time president of the Ethiopian
Students’ Union in North America, Dr. Senay, Malerid (the Ethiopian Marxist–Leninist
organization) and Ech’at (the Ethiopian Oppressed Masses Revolutionary Struggle)
founded by Baro Tumsa.
That said, the Emaledeh was beset by power struggle from the outset as each organization
competed for supremacy instead of working together to realize the original objective of the
 The onset of Civil War
Meanwhile, the struggle between the EPRP and the Derg and its allies had created a civil
war scenario since September 1976 when EPRP militants were arrested and executed
by the Derg and supporters of the Derg were assassinated by EPRP squads.
EPRP also attempted to assassinate Mengistu himself in mid-September. In what was
followed, the Derg attacked EPRP with large-scale arrests of its members and
sympathizers and carried out massive search and destroy campaigns, particularly in Addis
Ababa.
In late 1976, the Derg itself was ideologically divided and beset with the
internal struggles. Mengistu had eliminated two powerful members of the Derg and
potential rivals of his power and influence, Major Sisay Habte and Major
Kiros Alemayehu. Many other key members of the Derg were accused of being
EPRP members or sympathizers. On their parts, other members such as Lieutenant
Alemayehu Hayle and Captain Moges Wolde-Mikael resented the growing dictatorial
With the help of the chairperson, Brigadier General Teferi Benti, they then successfully
re-organized the structure of the Derg in such a way that Mengistu was marginalized.
On February 3, 1977 Mengistu hit back with a coup against Teferi.
Eventually, Teferi and other anti-Mengistu Derg members were executed.
After the coup, Mengistu Haile- Mariam assumed the chairmanship of the Derg and the
post of commander-in-chief of the armed forces. He then filled the top positions in the
Derg with his loyal supporters. Within just a year, the only remaining outstanding Derg
member, Lt. Colonel Atnafu Abate, was charged of impeding the revolutionary
process and executed.
Then Mengistu and his civilian left allies unleashed(let lose) what they called the “Red
Terror” initially targeting the EPRP and later including other opposition organizations,
including EPLF and the Tigray People’s Liberation Front (TPLF) and Meison after its
break up from the Derg.
EPRP had to take its only option of turning to rural guerrilla warfare as internal split
within it hastened its collapse.
The Derg and the Somalia Aggression
In the meantime, the Derg faced another challenge.
In the summer of 1977, the government of Somalia led by Siad Barre waged a large-scale war against
Ethiopia.
The Somalia National Army crossed the border into Ethiopia and carried out military operations in Degahbour,
Kebridehar, Warder and Godey taking control of Jigjiga and large scale pockets of western regions in the first
two weeks of the war.
Within a couple of months, the cities of Harar and Dire Dawa were endangered. Yet Somalia’s victory did not
last long.
The government mobilized a force of about 100,000 peasant militia and other forces that were trained at
Angetu, Didessa, Hurso, Tateq and Tolay in a short time with the help of USSR advisors and equipment.
Finally, with 17,000 Cuban troops and the help from Southern Yemen Democratic Republic, the
Somalia National Army was defeated at Kara-Mara near Jigjiga on March 4, 1978.
The aggression of the State of Somalia had been checked. The defeat led to the weakening of Siad Barre’s
government and contributed to its fall. At the same time, the aggression of the State of Somalia made it possible
for the Derg to rally the population to its side.
The Shift of Ethiopian Relation from West to East
In early 1977, the Derg had severed relations with the USA as the American
cultural and military institutions ended their operation in the country.
This was preceded by the termination of the Ethio-USA 1953 mutual defense
agreement. After a month, Mengistu concluded agreements with Moscow for
economic, cultural and military co-operation. The relations between Ethiopia
and the Soviet Union remained strong until the end of the military regime.
• In the north, Eritrean insurgents had encircled Asmara while a pro-monarchy
organization, the Ethiopian Democratic Union (EDU), was marching
inroads from the Sudan in the Satit-Humera region. Yet, by the end of 1978,
the EPRP had been contained in the towns and the Eritrean insurgents were
pushed back. EDU was crushed near the Ethio-Sudan borderland in places
like Metema, Abder Raffi and Satit-Humera.
 The Defection of Meison against Derg
o The Union of Ethiopian Marxist-Leninist Organizations fell apart once Meison defected the
Derg and its leaders were consequently either killed or arrested as they tried to retreat to the
countryside.
o The other three member organizations Ech’at, Wezlig, and Malerid were successively
expelled from Emaledeh and their leaders and members executed or detained.
o It was only Mengistu’s Seded that remained as the authentic Marxist-Leninist organization in
the country.
o The strategy of merging political organizations for party formation was then replaced by
recruitment of individuals loyal to Mengistu Haile-Mariam.
o In December 1979, the Commission for Organizing the Party of the Working People of
Ethiopia (COPWE) was established with this motive.
o In September 1984, the Workers’ Party of Ethiopia was inaugurated during the celebration
of the tenth anniversary of the coming of the Derg to power. It was a given that Mengistu
became the new party’s secretary-general.
 Re-structuring of Mass Organizations
In order for the government to have a more direct societal control, there was the need for re-
structuring of mass organizations that took place after the formation of the party.
It started with workers who had challenged the Derg right from the start, and on January 6,
1977, the CELU was replaced by a government-controlled All Ethiopia Trade Union
(AETU), which was later re- named Ethiopian Trade Union (ETU).
This was followed by the formation of the All Ethiopia Peasants’ Association (AEPA),
which ensured the government’s control over peasants. Later AETU was renamed Ethiopia
Peasants’Association (EPA).
Established in 1980, the Revolutionary Ethiopian Women’s Association (REWA) and
Revolutionary Ethiopian Youth Association (REYA) played similar role, rallying women
and the youth behind the state.
It was when the Shengo (PMAC National Assembly) proclaimed the People’s Democratic
Republic of Ethiopia (PDRE) in 1987 that such elaborate organizational set-up designed to
ensure total control of society reached its peak.
 With the birth of the PDRE, the Derg officially ceased to exist. A typically Communist
constitution already on its way, Colonel Mengistu became President of People’s
Democratic Republic of Ethiopia(PDRE), secretary general of WPE and Commander in
chief of the national armed forces with Fisseha Desta as Vice President and Fiqre-
Sellassie Wegderes head of the Council of Ministers as Prime Minister with five deputies.
 The Decline and Fall of Derg
Finally, it turned out that Mengistu could not stay in power more than four years after he was
proclaimed president of PDRE.
The dictator, who had maneuvered the urban left and had gone ruthless in the process, fell
under the attack of rural-based guerrilla movements.
Rural-based movements fighting for national self-determination thrived as liquidation of the
urban-based multi-national movements like the EPRP and Meison intensified in the center.
 These included the Oromo Liberation Front (OLF), active mainly in the Wallagga
region, the Islamic Front for Liberation of Oromia, based in Hararghe, the Afar
Liberation Front, the Sidama Liberation Front, the Beni-Shangul Liberation Front and
the Gambella Liberation Front.
Some of these fronts appeared only in the last days of the Derg. The two significant liberation
fronts which could be considered to have jointly brought about the downfall of the Derg were
the Eritran Liberation Front(EPLF )and the Tigrean People’s Liberation Front (TPLF).
Famine and Environmental Degradation
In 1984/5, a more devastating famine than the one in 1973/4 indicated the failure of the Derg’s
economic policies especially in agricultural production and marketing.
*In the late twentieth century, Ethiopia had experienced two major famines that gave rise to
national and international mobilization created a bad image on the country in international
scene.
*These were the 1972-4 and 1984-5 famines, caused by a variety of interrelated factors, which
include environmental crises (notably drought), economic, social causes as well as
political factors.
The state responded to the latter (environmental cause; drought) by resettling the affected people in
less affected areas of western Ethiopia.
The government responded to the famine by ignoring the problem for some time and then only to
introduce its controversial policy of massive resettlement of the affected peasants, mostly of
Tigray and Wollo provinces, in southwestern Ethiopia.
The villagization program that followed the resettlement further alienated the majority of peasants. It
was in this context that the guerrilla forces scored remarkable victories against the regime forces towards
 External Challenges and Derg
International politics too had turned against Mengistu’s interest as his ally,
 the Soviet Union ceased to be the source of his external support.
 Mikhail Gorbachev’s policy of perestroika (restructuring) and glasnost, (openness) in 1985 aimed at making
Soviet communism more efficient and humane was a failure and the Soviet Union collapsed as a major world power.
Even worse, the United States who the Derg had never been friendly with became the sole
arbiter of international affairs.
 Although Mengistu now tried to improve relations with the Americans, they were more
directed towards his opponents, the EPLF and the TPLF, who they believed had fully
abandoned Marxism Leninism.
In March 1990, the Derg proclaimed a mixed economy policy, which seemed to come too
late.
 The Military Failure of Derg
i)The Derg Vs EPLF
The government’s military failure came after defeating the invading force of Somalia; the
Derg turned its forces to the north, with the rather too assured slogan that “the victory scored
in the east will be repeated in the north.”
Initially the plan seemed to go well when the EPLF forces pulled back under the massive
assault launched by the Derg, which regained control over the rebel’s major strongholds in
1976/7.
However, the retreated EPLF forces were not driven out of their fortress at Naqfa in northern
Eritrea.
In March 1988, EPLF scored a major victory at Afabet, north of Asmara, from its stronghold
in Naqfa-Raza.
When in 1990, EPLF forces captured the port town of Massawa, it became only a matter of
time before the capital, Asmara, also fell to them.
 ii)The Derg Vs TPLP
The final decisive blow to Mengistu’s regime came to be administered by the TPLF that aimed
to secure the self-determination of Tigray within the Ethiopian polity.
The TPLF, at its inception, was grounded on the cumulative grievances of Tigray people
against the successive regimes of Ethiopia. To address the problems, Tigrayan students created
*the Political Association of Tigrayans (PAT) and
*the Tigrayan University Students’Association (TUSA) in the early 1970s.
PAT developed into a radical nationalist group calling for the independence of Tigray,
establishing the Tigray Liberation Front (TLF) in 1974.
In Tigrayan University Students’ Association TUSA, there emerged a Marxist leaning
group favoring national self-determination for Tigray within a revolutionary transformed
democratic Ethiopia.
Whereas the multinational left movements such as the EPRP and MEISON
advanced the view that the problem of Ethiopian nationalities could be resolved
through class struggle, the Marxists of TUSA argued that due to the existing
inequalities among Ethiopian nationalities, revolutionaries must use the struggle
of Ethiopian nationalities for self- determination as the launching pad for the
ultimate socialist revolution.
In February 1974, the Marxists within TUSA welcomed the Ethiopian
Revolution, but opposed the Derg as they were convinced that it would neither
lead a genuine socialist revolution nor correctly resolve the Ethiopian
nationality question.
Three days after the Derg took power, on 14 September 1974 the Mahber
Gesgesti Bihere Tigray (Association of Progressives of the Tigray Nation),
also known as Tigrayan National Organization (TNO) was established.
The TPLF started in February 1975 as a small guerrilla band in the northern region of
Ethiopia and eventually grew to provide the core of a future Ethiopian government.
Before it turned to confront the Derg, the TPLF was engaged in a bloody struggle with the
Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Army, EPRA (the armed wing of the EPRP), EDU, ELF,
and TLF.
 The Derg initially thought that TPLF was a mere creation of the EPLF to be vanished once
EPLF was crushed and thus underestimated its potentials. This made it possible for TPLF to
strengthen its forces and when the Derg opened offensives against it in the early 1980s, TPLF,
which had built strong army was able to successfully fight back.
In February 1989 TPLF scored its most decisive victory at Enda-Selassie, Western Tigray,
after a series of other military successes.
*At the victory of Enda-Selassie, tens of thousands of government troops were
captured and their commanders were either killed or captured. This resulted in the
withdrawal of all government troops from Tigray.
*TPLF then took control of the whole of Tigray and then started marching into the
 The Derg and Its Internal Dissatisfaction among Parties
Meanwhile, the prevalent accumulated dissatisfaction with Mengistu’s regime
and the exhausting war in the north had been high especially in the higher
echelons(ranks) of the army.
In May 1989, commanders of almost all military units, coordinated and led a
coup against Mengistu when he left the country on a state visit to the German
Democratic Republic, East Germany. However, the coup was so poorly
organized that loyal palace troops encircled the leaders before they could even
announce their intentions to the public.
 Mengistu returned triumphantly to take his revenge. The coup leaders were
all imprisoned or executed.
 The March of TPLF to AA
TPLF, after liberating Tigray, continued to move forward and made the necessary
organizational adjustments forming a bigger front known as the Ethiopian Peoples’
Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF).
The member organizations of EPRDF were
*TPLF,
*the Ethiopian People’s Democratic Movement (EPDM),
*a fragment group of the EPRP which had begun to play a significant role
in many of the military campaigns,
*the Oromo People’s Democratic Organization (OPDO) & the Ethiopian
Democratic Officers’ Revolutionary Movement (EDORM).
Other Liberation Fronts including the Oromo Liberation Front (OLF), Afar
Liberation Front, Sidama Liberation Front, Gambella Liberation Front and Beni
In 1990 and 1991 in consecutive and stunning campaigns, EPRDF forces
drove the Derg out of Gondar, Gojjam, and Wollo and parts of Wallagga and
Shewa and approached the capital from the north and west.
In 1990, Oromo forces dismantled the Derg army of the 131st Brigade in
battle that liberated Asosa and Bambasi in the then Wollega province.
In the meantime, negotiations for a peaceful end to the conflict were
underway between the government, the EPLF, and the TPLF in Atlanta,
Nairobi, and Rome.
In May 1991, while the last of these negotiations were going on in London, a
series of events put an end to the regime.
The Fled of Mengistu & the total Victory of TPLF
oOn May 21, Mengistu fled the country first to Nairobi and then to Harare
(Zimbabwe). There remained no resistance left that the Derg troops could put.
oIn London, the government delegation could not bargain anymore after the flight
of the president.
oEPLF forces entered Asmara and Assab and announced the de facto
independence of Eritrea.
oThe PDRE Vice President, Lt. General Tesfaye Gebre-Kidan appealed for an end
to the civil war on May 23, 1991.
oPrime Minister Tesfaye Dinqa left for the London peace conference mediated by
the U.S.A’s Foreign Affair African Service head Mr. Herman Cohen on May 27,
1991.
oIn the early hours of May 28, EPRDF, forces triumphantly entered Addis Ababa.
 7.3 Transitional Government

On 1 July 1991, a handful of organizations of which many were organized along ethnic lines assembled to review the draft
Charter prepared by the EPRDF and the OLF. The gathering was called the Peace and Democracy Transitional
Conference of Ethiopia.
The USA was at the forefront in providing the necessary diplomatic backing for the Peace and Democracy Conference.
The Conference was attended by delegates from the UN, the OAU, the G7, the US, the USSR, Sudan, Kenya, Djibouti
and Eritrea.
Eritrea was represented by its future president, Isayas Afeworki.
The Conference debated and approved the Transitional Charter on the basis of which the Transitional Government of
Ethiopia was created.
Representatives of 27 organizations formed a Council of Representatives (COR) which acted as a legislative body
(‘Parliament’).
This transitional parliament had 87 seats of which 32 were taken by the EPRDF and the remaining 55 seats were divided
among the 23 non-EPRDF organizations.
 At the same time, a Council of Ministers was formed as an executive branch, with Meles Zenawi as the President of
the Transitional Government of Ethiopia (TGE).
 Meles Zenawi then appointed a Prime Minister (Tamirat Layne) and a seventeen-member Council of Ministers.
Key posts were given to members of the EPRDF and OLF.
In December 1994, the constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE) was ratified, taking
effect following federal elections in mid-1995.
 The constitution stipulates that the country would have nine federated states based on ethno-linguistic,
identity and settlement patterns.
The federal arrangement sought to decentralize power to the regional states by accommodating the country’s
various ethno-linguistic groups.
After the election, Meles Zenawi assumed the premiership while Dr. Negasso Gidada became head of state.
EPLF & Eritrean Independence
Meanwhile, EPLF set up a Provisional Government of Eritrea in 1991.
This was followed by a referendum to decide the fate of Eritrea in which the majority of the population voted
for independence from Ethiopia.
In May 1993, the Government of Eritrea was formed with Isayas Afwerki becoming the first president of the
country after independence.
The End of All Chapters