Group 8

WELCOME TO OUR
PRESENTATION
Group’s members:
1. Ngô Thị Mỹ Linh
2. Trần Thị Bình Minh
3. Hồ Thị Tuyết Như
4. Trương Thị Thiên Duyên
5. Nguyễn Thị Tú Trinh
 Table of contents

01 Teaching: Input and Interaction

Learning in the second language

02 classroom
 01
Teaching: Input
and Interaction
INTRODUCTION
Presenter: Ngô Thị Mỹ Linh
What kind of L2 instruction makes a difference?
In what context?
And Using what method?

Proper instructional intervention at the proper

time would be helpful for promoting desired
learning outcomes in the L2 classroom.
 Language learning in a classroom context

Input Interactional
modifications activities

=> establish the foundational structure of any

classroom learning and teaching operation
 3.
1
Input Modifications
3.1.1. Form-Based Input Modifications
3.1.2. Meaning-Based Input Modifications
3.1.3. Form- and Meaning-Based Input Modifications
3.1.1. Form-Based Input Modifications
Product-oriented version
• It treats grammar as a product that can be
analyzed, codified, and presented.
 Audiolingual approach. (Watch video)
3.1.1. Form-Based Input Modifications
Product-oriented version
• It treats grammar as a product that can be
analyzed, codified, and presented.
 Audiolingual approach. (Watch video)
Ex. drills, role play.
Learners -> observe the grammatical input,
examine it, analyze it, imitate it, practice it,
use it.
 3.1.1. Form-Based Input Modifications
Process-oriented version
Ex.
3.1.1. Form-Based Input Modifications
Process-oriented version
• It treats grammar as a network of systems to
be interacted with.
• It focuses on understanding, general
principles, and operational experience.
• It refers to consciousness-raising
activities_input enhancement -> highlighting,
underlining and so on.
3.1.1. Form-Based Input Modifications
• Learners may be able to develop higher
levels of analysis of language BUT may not
be able to understand the full implication of
communicative use.
Ex.
1. There is a book on the table.
2. A book is on the table.
3.1.2. Meaning-Based Input Modifications
• We acquire language in
one way: understanding
messages
=> comprehensible
input or i+1.
• Ex. Guessing game,
problem-solving tasks.
3.1.2. Meaning-Based Input Modifications
Although learners exposed to meaning-
based input modifications speak fluently
and confidently, their speech has many
grammatical errors.
Reason: language learners who are
focusing on meaning may not have the
processing space to attend to form at the
same time.
3.1.3. Form- and Meaning-Based Input
Modifications
Spada’s study (1987):
instructional differences >< learning outcomes
 Class A -> form- based instruction
 Class B -> both form- and meaning- based instruction
 Class C -> meaning– based instruction
Class B showed a significant improvement.
Class A & C did not improve as much as class B.
3.1.3. Form- and Meaning-Based
Input Modifications
Accuracy, fluency, and overall communicative skills
are probably best developed through meaning-
based instruction but in which guidance through
form-focused activities and correction in
context. (Lightbown and Spada,1990)
Instruction is more beneficial when it is directed
toward how learners perceive and process
input rather than it has learners practice the
language via output. (Van Patten and Cadierno,1993)
3.1.3. Form- and Meaning-Based Input
Modifications
The learner’s attention to linguistic features will
be drawn explicitly if and only if it is
necessitated by communicative demand.

Both form- and meaning-based input

modifications are essential for an effective L2
teaching program.
Interactional Activities
Presenter: Trần Thị Bình Minh
 The terms “interaction and negotiation”:

something that is very different from their general usage involving intricate
sociolinguistic norms governing communication
conversational ex- changes that arise when participants try to
accommodate potential or actual problems of understanding
three interrelated dimensions of interaction :
+ the linguistic realizations
+ the linguistic realizations
+ an expression
 3.2.1. Interaction as a Textual Activity
- A textual activity: learners and their interlocutors modify their speech
phonologi- cally, morphologically, lexically, and syntactically.

- Care- taker talk conducted in the context of first-language acquisition

- The formal adjustments include:

+ A lower mean length of utterances
+ The use of sentences with a limited range of syntactic–
semantic relations, few subordinate and coordinate
constructions, modified pitch, intonation and rhythm
+ A high level of redundancy.

- That meaningful interaction is crucial for L2 development has been widely

recognized.
 3.2.2. Interaction as an Interpersonal Activity
- Interaction as an interpersonal activity deals with interpersonal communication

- Classroom community is a mini society nested within a larger society

- The potential to create a conducive atmosphere

- Vygotskyan sociocultural theory provides a richer and deeper interpretation

of the role of interaction in the language classroom (Hall, 2002; Lantoff,
2000).
 3.2.3. Interaction as an Ideational Activity
- Ideational Activity : the place where actual and possible forms of social
organization and their likely social and political consequences are defined and
contested. Yet it is also the place where our sense of ourselves, our
subjectivity, is constructed.
- Language is not simply a network of interconnected linguistic systems;
rather, it is a web of interlinked sociopolitical and historical factors that shape
one’s identity and voice.
- Critical pedagogy has to empower classroom participants “to critically
appropriate forms of knowledge outside of their immediate experience, to
envisage versions of a world
- Critical pedagogists call for an “empowering education” that relates “personal
growth to public life by developing strong skills, academic knowledge, habits of
inquiry, and critical curiosity about society, power, inequality, and change

- Critical linguists pointedly emphasize the role of critical language awareness

in developing sociopolitical consciousness.
 Critical classroom discourse analysis
(CCDA; Kumaravadivelu, 1999a).
- The primary function of such an analysis is to play a reflective role,
enabling teachers to reflect on and to cope with sociocultural and
sociopolitical structures that directly or indirectly shape the character and
content of classroom interaction

- Investigations of these and other related questions will provide additional

insights necessary to determine the nature and scope of interaction as an
ideational activity.

- A common thread that runs through all these works is an unfailing

emphasis on interaction as an ideational activity.
 Conclusion:
- Interaction as a textual activity focuses on formal concepts, and interaction
as an interpersonal activity focuses on social context, then interaction as an
ideational activity may be said to focus on the ideological content
- The three types of interaction may be said to produce three types of discourse:
+ interaction as a textual activity produces instructional discourse resulting in
better conversational understanding;
+ interaction as an interpersonal activity produces informational discourse
resulting in superior social communication;
+ interaction as an ideational activity produces an ideological discourse resulting
in greater sociopolitical consciousness.

- From a language-acquisitional point of view, they make it easier for learners of

various levels to notice potential language in- put, and recognize syntactic-
semantic relationships embedded in the input, thereby maximizing their learning.
 02
Learning in the
second language
classroom
 3.3 Content
Specifications
Presenter: Hồ Thị Tuyết Như
Components of language teaching program

Curriculum Syllabus
 language policy
 the specification of
 language planning content
 teaching methods  the sequencing of what
 evaluation is to be taught
measures
 3.3.1. SYLLABUS
CHARACTERISTICS
3.3.1. Syllabus Characteristic ...

A well-designed language teaching syllabus

seeks mainly
(a) to clarify the aims and objectives of
learning and teaching
(b) to indicate the classroom procedures the
teacher may wish to follow
 3.3.1. Syllabus Characteristic
Built-in-syllabus

learners themselves construct based on the

language content presented to them and in
conjunction with intake factors and processes.
(Corder,1967)
 3.3.1. Syllabus Characteristic
The learner syllabus is organic
learners appear to learn several items
simultaneously rather than sequentially
retaining some, rejecting others and reframing
certain others
=> a psycholinguistic basis for syllabus
construction
 3.3.1. Syllabus Characteristic
In a series of empirical studies, Pienemann (1984, 1987)
determine a possible set of psycholinguistically valid criteria
for syllabus construction
01 X = canonical order
subject–verb–object order

Ex: die kinder spielen mit ball

(‘the children play with the ball’).

02 X+1 adverb-preposing
da kinder spielen
(‘there children play’)
 3.3.1. Syllabus Characteristic
In a series of empirical studies, Pienemann (1984, 1987)
determine a possible set of psycholinguistically valid criteria for
syllabus construction

03 X+2= verb separation

alle kinder muß die pause machen

(‘all children must the break have’)

04 X+3=inversion
dann hat sie wieder die knoch gebringt
(‘then has she again the bone bringed’)
 3.3.1. Syllabus Characteristic

10 at Stage 2 or Stage 3 The subjects were given classroom

in their L2 development instruction for 2 weeks on the structure
from Stage 4

children Stage 3 progressed to Stage 4

children at Stage 2 remained the same
 3.3.1. Syllabus Characteristic
The learnability hypothesis

learners can benefit from classroom instruction only

when they are psycholinguistically ready for it

The teachability hypothesis

instruction can only promote language acquisition if the
interlanguage of the L2 learner is close to the point when
the structure to be taught is acquired in the natural
setting so that sufficient processing prerequisites are
developed
 3.3.1. Syllabus Characteristic

Instruction can improve acquisition with respect to

the frequency the different

the speed of
of rule linguistic contexts
acquisition
application
 3.3.1. Syllabus Characteristic
Mackey (1965) identified three major criteria for selection
language input:

 Frequency refers to the items that occur the most often in

the linguistic input that the learners are likely to encounter.

 Range is the spread of an item across texts or contexts

 Availability relates to the degree to which an item is

necessary and appropriate, and it also corresponds to the
readiness with which it is remembered and used
 3.3.1. Syllabus Characteristic
According to Kelly (1969), syllabus designers have
historically used three basic principles for determining the
sequencing of linguistic input:

 Complexity: suggests a movement from the easy to the

difficult

 Regularity: from the regular to the irregular

 Productivity: from the more useful to the less useful.

 3.3.1. Syllabus Characteristic
Grouping is concerned with the systems of a language, and
its structures (Mackey, 1965).
Grouping attempts to answer the question: What sounds,
words, phrases, or grammatical structures can be grouped
and taught together?

Ex: The simple present (habitual) may be grouped with

words like usually, often, and every, as in I go to the park
every weekend.
Similarly, words may be grouped together by association
(chair, table, furniture, seat, sit, etc.).
3.3.2. SYLLABUS
CLASSIFICATIONS
3.3.2. Syllabus Classifications

Wilkins (1976) proposed two broad classifications of

syllabus: synthetic syllabus and analytic syllabus
3.3.2. Syllabus Classifications
Synthetic syllabus is that a language system can be

(a) analyzed into its smaller units of grammatical structures,

lexical items, or functional categories

(b) classified in some manageable and useful way

(c) presented to the learner one by one for their

understanding and assimilation.
=> The language-centered as well as
learner-centered methods
3.3.2. Syllabus Classifications
In the analytic syllabus
 the language input is presented to the learner in fairly
large chunks.
 bring the learner’s attention to the communicative features
of the language
 they are connected texts in the form of stories, games,
problems, tasks, and so forth
=> Learning-centered methods
 LEARNING IN THE
SECOND LANGUAGE CLASSROOM
 Learning in the
second language classroom

Classrooms as social contexts

Teachers and learners, co- construct (plural) contexts.

Contexts are constructed through the talk- in- interaction

in relation to specific institutional goals and the unfolding
pedagogic goals of a lesson.
 Learning in the
second language classroom
Why is interaction seen as being so central to language
learning?

How can teachers and learners gain a closer understanding

of the interactional architecture (Seedhouse, 2004) of their
classes?

What impact might such an understanding have on learning

efficacy?
 Learning in the
Second language classroom
First, ‘interaction is the most important element in the
curriculum’ (van Lier, 1996: 5). The teacher has an
important role to play in shaping learner contributions
(Jarvis and Robinson, 1997)

Second, ‘good teaching’ is concerned with more than good

planning. According to van Lier (1991), teaching has two
essential ingredients: planning and improvising.
 Learning in the
Second language classroom
Third, teachers need to enhance their understanding
of the interactional organization of the L2 classroom,

Fourth, description and dialogue, both of which are

central to promoting interactional awareness, require
an appropriate metalanguage, a language that can be
used by teachers and learners to enhance
understanding of their local context
 Classroom interaction and
second language acquisition
Presenter: Trương Thị Thiên Duyên
Classroom interaction and second language
acquisition
Interaction
Introductio facilitates
01 n 02 second
language
Interaction acquisition
increases Interaction
03
opportunities 04 promotes
for practice reflection
 INTRODUCTIO
01 N
classroom interaction <=>
SLA: central
 ● Maximizing
• Successful teaching interaction
stems from “successful should be
management of the regarded as less
interaction”. (Allwright, important than
1984a: 159) optimizing it.
 role of the teacher: prime
responsibility
Johnson (1995): ‘the teacher plays a critical role in
understanding, establishing and maintaining patterns
of communication that will foster, to the greatest
extent, both classroom learning and second language
acquisition.’

Interaction which is ‘acquisition rich’ (Ellis, 1998) has to

be initiated, managed and sustained by teachers through
careful and knowing management of the turn- taking
sequences that occur in face to face communication.
 ‘model’

‘support’, reinforcing L3’s

contribution and making it
available to the rest of the class
by writing it on the board.
to inform
 02
Interaction facilitates
second language
acquisition
 Lon g
(
pro m 1 99 6) : S L
Interaction facilitates second o
throu ted when, is
comm h
g
A

u
language acquisition bre a k n i c a t i on
d
have own, lear
to ne
for m negotia rs
eanin te
g.

• Teaching is a ‘series of interactional

events’.
• Learners interact in many different ways: with
each other, with the teacher, with the
materials being used, with their level of
interlanguage and with their own thought
processes (Hatch, 1983)
 Negotiation enables learners:

• to provide each other with comprehensible input

• to give and gain feedback on contributions
• to modify and restructure utterances
• helpful in the acquisition of new vocabulary
• encourage learners to reformulate their
contributions
• bring learners’ interlanguage into line with target
language
 the role of the teacher

to ensure that input is comprehensible

and that learner output is ‘shaped’ in
some way so that it is ‘productive’.
 he highlights the need
for greater precision

he interjects again
another student offering the word smoke

negotiation for
meaning =>
the extended
and complex
turn produced
by L1
 Problems
Negotiation of meaning is not as widespread because
learners:
- negotiate at word level,
- repeat utterances,
- remain silent
- ‘pretend’ to have understood
(Berducci (1993) found that as little as 3% of
class- time was devoted to activities that allowed
negotiation.)
• Musumeci’s findings (1996) also confirmed:
“teachers […] speak more, more often, control the
topic of conversation, rarely ask questions for which
they do not have answers, and appear to understand
absolutely everything the students say, sometimes
before they even say it!”
By ‘filling in the gaps’, teachers -> coherent and flowing
discourse -> deny learners opportunities & identify potential
problems in understanding.
=> no evidence of sustained negotiation
 Desirable to have discourse
that
less ‘easy on the ear’, but through
which learning opportunities are
maximized and where problems and
shortfalls (in language acquisition)
are more transparent.
 teacher seeks
clarification

teacher persists
with requests for
clarification

teacher gets
the response
Teachers would be well-advised to:
 really listen to a learner’s response and evaluate
its communicative potential.
 not always accept a learner’s first contribution.
 be prepared to persevere until they are satisfied
that the intended meaning has been conveyed.

=> because this is what learners will encounter

outside the classroom.
 0
3
Interaction increases
opportunities for
practice
• Learners must have opportunities to speak.

• Bygate (1988): speaking may be more important

to the process of SLA than comprehensible input.

• ‘It is only when the learner is being required

to piece together his [sic] own utterances that
he is being obliged to work out – and hence
learn – his own plans of verbal action, all the
while evaluating his output in the light of his
meaning intention.’
According to Swain (1985), output is important
because:
• it forces the learner to develop precise, coherent
and appropriate linguistic resources
• it requires the learner to pay close attention to
syntax and test hypotheses.

=> learners have to pay attention not only to the

form of an utterance, but also to its function and
degree of appropriacy at a given point in an
exchange.
 Output hypothesis, Swain (2005)
- Output enhances fluency and promotes ‘noticing’ by allowing
learners to identify gaps between what they want to say and
what they are able to say.
- The dialogic nature of language learning can be enhanced
by using dialogues as ‘the unit of analysis of language
learning’.

the “give and take” of the dialogue is more conducive to gaining

an understanding of what is actually happening than the isolated
utterances of teacher or learners.
 receives no immediate
response

feeds in the missing vocabulary

=> by considering classroom discourse as a form of

dialogue:
- understandings: greatly enhanced
- gaps in learners’ interlanguage: identified.
 Problems
Students may:
• not take the task seriously
• make extensive use of L1
• withdraw from the task
• dominate the discussion
• perform poorly
The role of the teacher

the teacher plays a ‘scaffolding

role’ – monitoring, supervising
and feeding in language as it is
needed (cf. Röhler et al., 1996)
 0
4
Interaction promotes
reflection
●Quality interaction affords learners time
to reflect on their output, identify gaps in
their linguistic knowledge and ‘notice’
features of new language in relation to
what has been acquired already
(Schmidt, 1993; Batstone, 1994;
Thornbury, 1999).

●Reflection can only occur when learners

are afforded space to reflect.
The role of the teacher
• Allowing interactional space
• Making sure that learners are
interacting, but also that they
have time to reflect on and
learn from their interaction.
 To help learners monitor, reflect on
and self- correct their contributions

• By clearly signaling the progression of a lesson

• By indicating the beginnings and ends of
stages
• By making the methodology explicit
• By allowing more planning and thinking time
• By using direct repair and corrective feedback
 Socio-cultural theory
and language learning
Presenter: Nguyễn Thị Tú Trinh
- Socio-cultural theories of
learning emphasize its
social nature.
- Socio-cultural theories of
learning emphasize the fact
that the mind is mediated.
Three key Vygotskyan principles

The social Learning and Learning

nature of the Zone of and
knowledge Proximal scaffolding
Development
 01

The social
nature of
knowledge
- Bruner (1975, 1983) and Vygotsky (1962, 1978) stress its
‘transactional’ nature: Learning occurs in the first instance
through interaction with others, who are more experienced
and in a position to guide and support the actions of the
novice.
- Learning moves from the
interpsychological to the
intrapsychological.
- Language acts as a
symbolic tool, mediating
interpersonal and
intrapersonal activity.
02
Learning and
the Zone of
Proximal
Development
● The ZPD that a
person can complete
with the guidance of
a More
Knowledgeable Other
(MKO.) The MKO
could be a teacher,
parent, or just a
student who has
more skills in the
subject.
- Any learning
process can be
broken into a series
of interrelated
stages
- Learners need to
be helped to
progress from one
stage to the next.
 03

Learning
and
scaffolding
The term
‘scaffolding’ is
used to refer to
the linguistic
support given by a
tutor to a learner
(Bruner, 1990).
- A student wants to
achieve the learning
outcome
- A teacher can build
scaffolds or
supporting structures
to help the student get
to the learning
outcome.
- Once a task has been
mastered, scaffolds
are removed and the
learner is left to reflect
1. recruiting interest in the
task
2. simplifying the task
3. maintaining pursuit of the
goal
4. marking differences
between what has been
produced and the ideal
solution
5. controlling frustrations
during problem-solving
6. demonstrating an
idealized version of the
act to be performed
 ● Language learning and
1st language use are social
activities
● An emphasis on
discovery-based learning
through problem-solving;
task-based instruction; the
centrality of pair and group
work are all important
features of the
contemporary EFL
classroom.
2nd ● The process of
‘scaffolded instruction’
(Bruner, 1983, 1990),
involves learners in
taking risks; learning
support is withdrawn as
learners become
independent, solving
problems for themselves
and acquiring new skills.
Finally

● Dialogue acts as a
‘mediating force’ is crucial
in helping learners
acquire new knowledge
(Ahmed, 1994)
This chapter has reviewed:
- A sample of the literature
on class-based second
language acquisition.
- The description of the
main characteristics of L2
classroom contexts
- The shape of socio-
cultural theories of
education and learning.
Interaction in the
second language
classroom is
fundamental to
language
acquisition
Thank
s!
Do you have any questions?
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+91 620 421 838
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