TOPIC 2:

COMPUTER HARDWARE

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COMPUTER SYSTEMS
Definition
 A computer system is a set of interrelated

elements working together in an integrated

way to achieve a set of objectives.
 It can also be defined as, a collection of
components namely hardware, software,
data and liveware that work together to
receive, process, manage and present
information in meaningful format.
 Computer system components include;
hardware, software, data and the users.

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COMPUTER HARDWARE
 Hardware is the physical components of the computer
itself i.e. those components which can be seen and
touched. They are tangible components.
 Computer hardware is classified into four categories
namely; input devices, processing devices,
output devices and storage devices.

Input devices
 These are devices that enter data and instructions into

the computer so that it can be processed.

 The input device convert user input which is in human

language form into machine language that a computer

can process.
 Input devices can be classified according to the

methods they use to enter data namely: keying, 3

pointing, scanning devices and other technologies
used to capture data.
KEYING DEVICES:
 Keying devices: is the most common way to input
data. a keying device converts typed numbers, letters
and special characters into machine readable form
before processing takes place. Some common types of
keying devices include:
1. Keyboard
 Keyboard is primarily the input device in the computer

using which you can type the data that you want to
provide as input, play games and perform various
other tasks. A keyboard has several keys though it
depends and differs from one to the other
manufacturer.
 A keyboard is also used to give commands to the

operating system of a computer, such as Windows

' Control-Alt-Delete combination.
 The keys on the keyboard can be classified into the 4

following groups:
CONT’ED
 Function keys are labeled F1 to F12.they are mainly used
as shortcut to specialized operations in application
programs.e.g. F1 is used to invoke the online help.
 Alphabetical keys layout resembles that of the
typewriter. It consists of letters of the alphabet, A to Z.They
are not in their alphabetical order.
 Numerical keypad consists of mainly numerical character
0-9.this section is used to enter numeric data.
 Navigation/arrow keys are used to control the cursor or
pointer and edit text, also, they show the direction. The
keys are located between typing keys and the numeric
keypad.
 Special keys are used mostly in combination with other
keys as a shortcut to commands.e.g. are CTRL, ALT,
SHIFT,ENTER,BACKSPACE,CAPS, DELETE etc.
 Alphanumerical keys are the keys that contain alphabet
symbols (upper or lower case) and numerals (0-9). 5
Everything else is a punctuation, control, function, or
special key.
6
TYPES OF KEYBOARD
 Traditional keyboards: The traditional keyboard layout is QWERTY
which are the first six letters. This type of keyboard was introduced
in 1872 and was marketed by Christopher Sholes. This pattern was
the standard for a long time till the new keyboards came around.
 Flexible keyboard: is a more portable type of keyboard that can be

folded and packed into a bag.

 Ergonomic keyboard: is specially designed to provide comfort and

alleviate wrist strain.

 Braille keyboard: is an accessibility option for the blind. It consists

of keys identified by raised dots.

2. Keypad
 A keypad is a miniature keyboard used on portable devices such as

PDAs, laptops and mobile phones.

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Ergonomic
keyboard
POINTING DEVICES
 Control a pointer or cursor on the screen.
 They are mostly used on computers running graphical

user interface (GUI) operating system such as Microsoft

Windows. Some of the pointing devices include mouse,
track ball, joystick, light pen and stylus.
Mouse
 A mouse is a pointing device that functions by

detecting two-dimensional motion relative to its

supporting surface. Physically, a mouse consists of an
object held under one of the user's hands, with one or
more buttons. It sometimes features other elements,
such as "wheels", which allow the user to perform
various system-dependent operations, or extra buttons
or features that can add more control or dimensional
input. The mouse's motion typically translates into the
motion of a cursor on a display, which allows for fine 8
control of a graphical user interface.
TERMINOLOGY RELATED TO
MOUSE
 Clicking: pressing the left mouse button
once as quickly as possible. This selects a
command or an item.
 Double Clicking: is the press and release

the left mouse button twice as quickly as

possible. This often opens a document.
 Right clicking: involves pressing the right

mouse button once. This action displays the

shortcut menu.
 Drag and drop: involves holding down the

default mouse button and then moving the

selected item to a new location on the screen
then releasing the button. 9
TYPE OF MICE
 There are three types of mice available in the
market namely; mechanical, optical and
cordless.
 Mechanical mouse: has a ball underneath,

two buttons and optical scroll wheel.

 Optical mouse: has a pointing device that

uses light emitting diode (LED), an optical

sensor and digital signal processing (DSP) in
place of the traditional mouse ball and
electromechanical transducer.
 Cordless mouse or wireless mouse: is a

battery powered mouse that uses radio or

infrared waves instead of being physically 10

connected to the system unit.

CONT’ED
Trackball
 A trackball works just like mouse only that its ball is located

at the top. Instead of moving the device on a flat surface,

the user instead rotates the ball using a finger. Some
computer keyboards come with an integrated trackball
hence no need for a mouse.
Joystick
 A specialized pointing device used for playing games. The

user control game actions by varying the pressure, speed

and direction of the joystick. Command buttons are used to
issue commands or trigger actions.
Light Pen and Stylus
 A light pen is a light-sensitive pointing device. It operates by

identifying a pixel on the screen hence pointing to the

current location. A stylus on the other hand is used on touch 11
sensitive devices such as PDA screens that recognize a
handwritten text.
SCANNING DEVICES
 Scanning means capturing data from an object and
converting it into digital format. There are two types of
scanners namely optical and magnetic scanners.
Optical Scanners
 Optical Scanners capture data using optical or light

technology. A light beam passes over an object and

the image is analyzed by a specialized software. Some
examples of optical scanners include;
Optical mark recognition (OMR); which detects marks
made on a piece of paper using ink or soft pencil, by
passing an infrared beam of light over them. The position
of the mark relative to a fixed point of reference is
analyzed to determine whether it is in the required place.
 OMRs are used to mark multiple choice questions,

analyse responses to structured questionnaires and

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select correct number combinations from lottery
tickets.
CONT’ED
Optical bar recognition; the optical bar code(OBR)
scanners are used to capture data coded as lines of varying
thickness known as bar codes or universal product
code(UPC).Bar codes are most common on consumer
products and contain information such as country of
manufacture, manufacturer and the product code.bar codes
do not have the price details because prices vary from one
place to another.
 The two common types of bar code scanners are held

Wand and Desktop bar code reader.

Optical Character Recognition (OCR); is the most
advanced type of scanner that works like the human eye. It
is used to read typewritten, computer printed, or
handwritten characters and transforms the images into a
soft copy that can be manipulated using a word processor.
 Today, an OCR comes as integrated feature of more
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advanced scanners called flat-bed scanners. Flat bed
scanners are used to capture pictures and real objects.
MAGNETIC SCANNERS
 Magnetic scanners are used to capture data
written using magnetic ink or coded onto a
magnetic strip. The two common types of
magnetic scanner are:
 Magnetic Ink Character Recognition
(MICR); devices are used to read characters
written using magnetic ink. An example of an
MICR is the cheque reader used in banks.
 Magnetic Card Reader; is used to read

data coded on a magnetic strip on a plastic

card such as the one used on an automated
teller machine(ATM) and credit card reader.

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OTHER TECHNOLOGIES
Voice input
 Data can be entered directly into a computer

using voice input devices such as microphones.

A microphone is attached to a sound card
which has an analog-digital converter. Speech
recognition software allows the user to issue
commands using natural language.
Touch Screen
 Touch Screen works by allowing the user to

touch the screen in order to select an item. The

screen consists of infrared light crisscrossing
behind it. When the user touches a location on
the screen, the finger interrupts the infrared
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light and the command touched is executed.
CONT’ED
Digitizers
 A digitizer, also known as graphic tablet, is made up

of a flat surface and allows the user to draw an

image using a stylus. The image drawn does not
appear on the tablet but on the computer screen.
The digitizer is used for tracing highly detailed
engineering and architectural drawings and designs.
Digital Cameras
 Digital Cameras capture data the same way as other

cameras do but the images are stored in digital

form. Pictures are stored on a memory card instead
of a film.
 The digital image takes can be streamed directly

into a computer uploaded to internet using a

webcam or directly printed using a special photo 16
printer.
PROCESSING DEVICES
 The central processing unit (CPU) also
referred to as the processor is the central
part of the computer where data processing
takes place. It is regarded as the brain of the
computer. Microprocessor is a tiny chip
etched into a silicon chip. It is mounted onto
a board known as the motherboard or
system board.
 Regardless of size, a processor consists of

three functional elements namely control

unit, arithmetic and logic unit and main
memory (primary storage). 17
CONT’ED
 Control Unit; is responsible for controlling all the
activities in a computer. Within the CPU, the control
unit interprets instructions fetched from the main
memory and sends control signals to the arithmetic
and logic unit instructing it on how to execute the
instructions.
 Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU); performs
arithmetic and logical operations on data as directed
by the control unit. Data to be executed by the ALU is
temporarily held in special memories located inside
the processor called registers.
 Main Memory; the main memory stores data and
instructions that are directly accessible to the
processor. The two types of main memory are Random 18
Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only Memory
(ROM).
RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM)
 RAM mostly referred to as working storage is a
volatile, temporary storage that holds data
entered into the computer for processing.
There are two types of RAM namely Static
RAM (SRAM) and dynamic RAM (DRAM)
 Static RAM (SRAM) is a fast type of memory

mostly found inside a microprocessor. Due to

its efficiency SRAM is used on special purpose
memories known as cache memory.
Characteristics of SRAM include:
 Faster access by the CPU.

 Its content does not require refreshment.

 Large in size.
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 expensive
DYNAMIC RAM (DRAM)
 Dynamic RAM (DRAM) is a relatively slower type of
RAM compared to SRAM. The term dynamic refers to the
tendency for the stored charge to leak away, even
with constant power supply. For this reason, DRAM
requires periodic recharging referred to as
refreshment to maintain its data storage.
Characteristics of DRAM include:
 Requires constant refreshment to avoid losing its content.

 Offers slower access time compared to SRAM.

 Cheaper compared to SRAM.

 There are several types of DRAMs with each release

promising better performance. Some commonly available

DRAMs include: Fast Page Mode(FPM),Extended Data
Out(EDO),Extended Correcting Code(ECC),Synchronous
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Dynamic RAM(SDRAM),Rambus Dynamic RAM(RDRAM).
READ ONLY MEMORY
 Read Only Memory (ROM) contains non-
volatile, relatively permanent data and
instructions that cannot be easily changed.
 ROM is mainly used to store firmware from

hardware manufacturers. Firmware is a chip

with instructions coded in it. Some of the
characteristics of ROM include:
 Cannot write new data or instruction.

 It is non-volatile hence permanent

 The contents cannot be modified.

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CONT’ED
 These are several types of ROM. These include:
 Mask ROM; this kind of ROM is written once at the of
manufacture and cannot be changed afterwards.
 Programmable ROM (PROM); can be written only
once by the user after which it cannot be changed
again. After programming, it assumes the
characteristics of mask ROM.
 Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM); is a special
type of ROM that can be erased and reprogrammed
again by exposing it to ultra-violet light.
 Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM
(EEPROM); is programmable under software control
and can support selective modification of its contents.
A BIOS chip found on a microcomputer’s motherboard 22
is an example of EEPROM.
 SPECIAL PURPOSE MEMORIES
 Some other types of memories are embedded in a
microprocessor in order to enhance its processing
speed. These memories include buffers,
registers and cache memory.
 Cache Memory; is a fast type of RAM. These are

three types of cache memory namely; Level 1,

Level 2, and Level 3.
 Buffers; are special memories that are found in

input/output devices. Input data is held in the input

buffer while processed data is held in output buffer.
 Registers; are high speed memory locations

capable of holding only one piece of data item at a

time. Registers are located inside the CPU. They
hold data and instructions just before or after 23
processing in the ALU.
TYPES OF PROCESSORS
 There are twoof processors;
types
Complex Instruction Set Computer
(CISC) and Reduced Instruction Set
Computers (RISC).
Complex Instruction Set Computer
 Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC)
design is made up of complex
instructions microcoded into the
processor.
Reduced Instruction Set Computers
 Reduced Instruction Set Computers
(RISC) design, on the other hand, uses
fewer instruction sets than CISC hence it 24

is less costly.
OUTPUT DEVICES
 Output Devices make it possible for the user
to get processed information from the
computer.
 The most common types of output data

include text, pictures, sound and video.

 Output devices can be classified into two

categories namely; softcopy and hardcopy

output devices.
Softcopy output devices; softcopy can be
defined as output that can be seen or heard
but cannot be touched. Examples of such
devices include monitors, sound output
devices and LCD projectors.
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MONITORS
 Also known as Visual Display Unit (VDU) or the
screen. It is used to display information in the
form of text, picture and video, enabling the user to
monitor what is going on in the computer.
 There are three common types of monitors namely;

Cathode ray tube (CRT), Liquid crystal display

(LCD) and Gas plasma display .LCD and gas
plasma display are generally known as flat-panel
displays.
Some of the terms associated with computer display
include:
 Pixel; picture elements, are tiny dots which are used

to form the images displayed on the screen. In a

colour monitor, a pixel has the three primary colours
namely red, green and blue.
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 Colour depth; refers to number of colours which

can be displayed by a pixel. It is measured in bits.

 CONT’ED
 Resolution; this is the number of pixels per inch on the
screen usually given in dots per inch (DPI) or bits. The higher
the resolution, the more the number of pixels per inch, hence
the clearer the images.
 Video adapter; the monitor is connected to the system unit
through the video port to a video adapter. The video adapter
determines the resolution and clarity of the monitor.
Examples of video adapters include: Colour graphics
adapter(CGA),Enhanced graphics adapter(EGA),Video
graphics Array(VGA),Super Video Graphics
Array(SVGA),Extended graphics array(XGA),Super
Extended graphics array(SXGA) and Ultra Extended graphics
array(UXGA).
 Refresh Rate: since CRTs cannot hold an image for a long
time, image in the video RAM is used to refresh the one on
the screen as long as necessary. If a screen has a low refresh
rate, images tend to flicker hence causing eyestrain.
 Display size is measured in inches as the diagonal length 27
of the screen measured from top right to bottom left.
 CATHODE RAY TUBE MONITORS
 A Cathode ray tube (CRT) monitor consists of
a long glass tube with an electron gun on one
end and a screen on the other end.
 The screen is coated with tiny phosphorus

dots that illuminate red, green and blue to

make a pixel.
 There are two types of CRTs namely invar

and Trinitron.
 In the invar type, pixels are placed
horizontally while in Trinitron type; pixels are
placed in vertical grid.

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LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY MONITORS
 Liquid crystal display (LCD) monitors are made

of special liquid crystals. Unlike CRTs, LCDs

are less bulky, consume less power and
have little effect of eyes.
 Due to this reason, LCD monitors are gradually

replacing the CRT monitors as desktop

computers.
 There are two types of LCD monitors namely

Passive matrix and Active matrix.

 In passive matrix, LCDs create images by

scanning the entire screen. This type of LCD

requires little power but has poor clarity. On
the other hand, active matrix displays are
made using thin film transistors (TFTs). These
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displays consume more power than passive
matrix but offer better clarity.
GAS PLASMA DISPLAYS
 Gas plasma displays resemble LCDs but use
gas instead of liquid.
 They contain millions of pixels that
illuminated by charged neon gas.
 Unlike LCDs, images displayed on gas plasma

do not suffer from angle distortion.

 For this reason this technology is becoming

more popular.
 It is currently used in producing high
definition TVs (HDTV) with large screens used
in homes and entertainment places.

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CONT’ED
Sound output devices
 Examples of sound output devices include

speakers and headphones. Some computers

come with inbuilt speakers hence there is no
need to connect external ones. An external
speaker should be connected to a sound card
through the jacks on the system unit or on a
multimedia monitor.
LCD Projectors
 LCD Projectors are used to display output

from a computer on plain white screen

like a wall or whiteboard. It is a creative way of
presenting computer output to an audience.
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This technology is gradually replacing the
traditional overhead projectors.
HARDCOPY OUTPUT DEVICES
 Hardcopy can be defined as tangible output that can
be seen and touched. An example of a hardcopy is a
printout. Three commonly used hardcopy output
devices are printers, plotters and facsimile (fax).
Printers
 Printers can generally be classified into two main

categories namely impact and non-impact

printers.
Impact printers
 They print using striking mechanism. This means

that they strike the paper in order to form an imprint

on it. Impact printers are cheaper to run and print for
long period without breaking down. They however,
produce low quality printout.
 Two examples of impact printers are dot matrix and
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daisywheel printers. However these printers are no
longer in the market.
 NON-IMPACT PRINTERS
 Non-impact printers are faster and produce less noise
than the impact printers. They print using ink, thermal or
laser mechanisms. There are four types of non-impact
printers namely inkjet, thermal, laser printers and
photo printers.
 Inkjet printers; print by spraying tiny ink droplets onto
a paper to create an image.
 Inkjet printers are cheaper and produce better quality
printouts. They are, however, more expensive to run
due to the high cost of replacing the catridges.
another drawback is that, an inkjet printout easily gets
smudged when water drops on it.
 Thermal printers; work by heating solid ink which is
normally in wax or resin form to melting point then
transferring it onto the paper to form characters.
Thermal printers are mostly used in point of sale
terminals to print receipts and bar codes. Thermal
printers produce high quality printouts. They are, 33

however, more expensive to purchase and run.

CONT’ED
 Laser printers; operate by shining a laser beam
to create an image on a rotating drum. As the
beam hits the drum, it ionizes some regions
which attract ink toner particles. The toner is then
fused onto a piece of paper.
 Laser printers are very fast compared to the other

two. They are also cheaper to run and produce

printouts of high quality. They are, however,
more expensive than the others.
 Photo printers; are special purpose printers

designed to print photographs.

Plotters
 A plotter is used for printing wide format

printouts mainly photographs, maps and 34

architectural designs.
SECONDARY STORAGE

 Secondary Storage, also referred to as

auxiliary storage device, is so called
because unlike primary storage, it is not
directly accessible by the CPU. However; it
offers long term storage for data and
information.
 Secondary storage devices can be classified

in two ways by:

 Portability as removable and fixed

 Technology used to store and retrieve

data(magnetic, optical, magneto-optical and
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solid state)
REMOVABLE MAGNETIC STORAGE
 Magnetic storage media use magnetic technology to store
data. The process involves organizing minute atomic level
magnets called dipoles to represent data on the medium.
Data is read and written into the media using a device
known as drive. Examples of removable magnetic media
include: magnetic tapes and floppy disks.
Removable magneto-optical storage
 Magneto-optical media stores data both magnetically

and optically. This is achieved by heating the media to

about 1490C using a precise laser beam which then
guides a magnetic head to write on the heated area.
 Heating disorients the magnetic dipoles in the area and

enables the magnetic head to rearrange them in a new

pattern that represents the data being written. Reading is
done using a laser beam which can detect the polarization
of the magnetic dipoles on the media. Some examples of
magneto-optical media are the Zip and jaz disks, HiFD 36
and LS-120 superdisk.
 REMOVABLE OPTICAL STORAGE
 Are so called optical storage media because data
is written and read from them using a laser beam.
There are various types of optical disks depending
on the format used to store data. The most
common include:
Compact Disks
 Compact Disk (CD) is made of a small plastic disk

with a reflective aluminum coating on one side.

CDs can store data of approximately 700MB. The
three common types of CDs are read only,
recordable and rewritable.
Compact disk read only memory
 Compact disk read only memory (CD-ROM) as the

name suggests contains data that can only be 37

read but cannot be written on.
 COMPACT DISK RECORDABLE
 Compact disks read only memory (CD-R) are coated
with special dye which changes colour to represent
data when burned using a laser beam. Once data is
burned on CD-R, it becomes a read only. Both the
CD-ROM and the CD-R are generally known as
write once read many (WORM) disks.
Compact disk rewritable
 Unlike a CD-R, the CD-RW disk can be erased and

rewritten more than once. Because of this, it is also

called a compact disk erasable (CD-E). It is also
coated with special dye which allows rewriting.
Digital Versatile disk
 Digital Versatile disk (DVD) resemble CD-ROMs in

every aspect only that they can store more data.

Just like CDs, there are three common types of DVDs 38
namely read only, recordable and rewritable DVDs.
 SOLID STATE STORAGE DEVICES
 Solid state storage is a kind of nonvolatile
storage media that employs integrated circuits
rather than mechanical, magnetic or optical
technology. They are regarded as solid state
because they do not have moving parts but
everything is electronic as is the case of RAM
or EEPROM. Some examples of solid state
devices include USB flash disks, memory
stick and memory cards.
 The advantages of solid state storage over the

other removable media is that they are

noiseless since they have no mechanical
parts, they offer faster access to stored
data, and they are very small hence more 39

portable.
FIXED MAGNETIC STORAGE
 A hard disk, also known as hard drive, is an example
of fixed storage.
Structure of a hard disk
 A single hard disk usually consists of several

platters. Each platter requires two read/write

heads, one for each side. All the read/write heads are
attached to a single access arm so that they cannot
move independently. Each platter has the same
number of tracks, and a track location that cuts
across all platters is called a cylinder. For example, a
typical 84 megabyte hard disk for a PC might have
two platters (four sides) and 1,053 cylinders.
 Some of the advantages of the hard disk over the

other storage media is that they store very large40

volumes of data and offer faster data access.