Chapter 10

Statistical Quality
Control

Sam Lampropoulos
© 2021 McGraw-Hill Education Limited.
George Brown College
 Chapter Outline
 Introduction to Statistical Process Control
 Control Charts
 Process Capability
 Six Sigma Quality

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 Introduction
 Statistical Quality Control uses statistical techniques
and sampling to monitor and test the quality of goods and
services.
• Acceptance sampling relies on inspection,
determines to accept or reject a product
• Statistical process control determines if process
is operating within acceptable limits during
production
 Inspection is the appraisal of goods/services against standards.

The best companies

design quality into the
process, thereby reducing the
need for inspection/tests.
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 Phases of Quality Control
Phases of statistical quality control/ improvement in
a company.

Figure 10-1

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 Inspection
Location of use of an acceptance sampling and statistical
process control within production
 How Much/How Often
 Where/When
 Centralized vs. On-site

Figure 10-2
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Where to Inspect in the Process:
Quality Control Point

1. At the beginning of the process:

Raw materials and purchased parts

2. At the operation where a characteristic of interest

to customers is first determined:
Before a costly operation
Before an irreversible process
Before a covering process

3. At the end of the

process:
Finished products

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 Inspection Costs
The amount of inspection is optimal when the sum of the
costs of inspection and passing defectives is minimized.

Figure 10-3

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 Statistical Process Control (SPC) Steps
Take periodic
samples from
process

Compare to
predetermined
limits

If outside limits,
stop process and If inside limits,
take corrective continue process
action

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 Types of Variations
• Random variation: Natural variations in the output of
process, created by countless minor factors.
• Assignable variation: A variation whose source can be
identified.

Main task of
SPC is to
distinguish
assignable from
random
variation

Figure 10-4
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 Normal Distribution

Only a small percentage of sample means fall more

than 2 or 3 standard deviations from the process
mean.
Figure 10-6
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 Control Chart
 Purpose: to monitor process output to
distinguish between random and assignable
variation
 A time ordered plot of sample statistics (e.g.
means) obtained from an ongoing process
 Upper and lower control limits define the
range of acceptable variation

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 Control Chart

Figure 10-7
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 Control Limits
The dividing lines between random and assignable
deviations from the process mean.
Control
• limits
Sampling
are set at 2 or 3
distributi
standard on
deviations of the
Process
process mean.
distributio
n

Process
Mean

Lower Upper
control control
limit limit
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 Type I and Type II Error
Type I error: concluding
that a process has Type II error:
changed (assignable concluding a process
variation) when it has not. is in control when it
is actually not
(assignable variation
is present).

Figure 10-9

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 Type I and Type II Errors

In control Out of control

Type I error
In control No Error
(producers risk)
Out of Type II Error
No error
control (consumers risk)

Table 10-2

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 Designing Control Charts
1. Determine a sample size

2. Obtain 20 to 25 samples

3. Establish and graph preliminary control limits

4. Plot sample statistic values on control chart

5. Are any points outside control limits (CL)?

a. NO b. YES
Assume no assignable cause Investigate and correct
Process is in control Process is out of control
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 Control Charts for Variables
Variables generate data that are measured.
 Sample Mean control charts
• Used to monitor the mean (centre) of a
process.
• X-bar charts
 Sample Range control charts
• Used to monitor the process dispersion
(variation)
• R charts
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 Upper and Lower Control Limits
for Sample Mean Chart

UCLx  X  z x
LCLx  X  z x
where
x = Standard deviation of sampling distribution of
 =
sample means
n
 = Process standard deviation
n = Sample size
z = Standard Normal deviate (usually z = 3)
x = Average of sample means = grand mean
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 Upper and Lower Control Limits
for Sample Mean Chart
Alternate Method
UCLx  X  A2 R
LCLx  X  A2 R

where
A2 can be obtained from Table 10–3
R= Average of sample ranges
Sample range = maximum value – minimum
value in the sample
x = Average of sample means = grand mean
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 Example: Control Chart
Twenty samples of n = 8 have been taken of the weight
of a part. The average of sample ranges for the 20
samples is .016kg, and the average of sample means is
3kg. Determine three sigma control limits for sample
mean of this process.
Solution
x 3, R .016, A2 .37(for n 8, from Table (10 - 3)

´ + 𝐴2 𝑅=3 +.37 ( .016 ) =3.006 𝑘𝑔

𝑈𝐶𝐿 𝑥 = 𝑥
´ − 𝐴 2 𝑅=3 − .37 ( .016 ) =2.994 𝑘𝑔
𝐿𝐶𝐿 𝑥 = 𝑥
Example 10-3
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 Upper and Lower Control Limits
for Sample Range Control Chart
Sample range (R) control chart: the control
chart for sample range, used to monitor process
dispersion or spread.

UCL R D4 R
LCL R D3 R

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 Example: Control Chart
Twenty-five samples of n=10 observations
have been taken from a milling process. The
average of sample ranges is .01 centimetre.
Determine upper and lower control limits for
sample range.
Solution
R .01cm, D3 .22 D4 1.78(for n 10, from Table )

UCLR = 1. 78(.01) = 0.0178cm

LCLR = 0.22(.01) = 0.0022cm
Example 10-4
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Example:
Sample Mean and Range Charts
Data from 15 samples each with 5 observations.
O b s e r va ti o n

S a m p le 1 2 3 4 5

1 1 0 .6 8 1 0 .6 9 1 0 .7 8 1 0 .8 0 1 0 .7 1

2 1 0 .7 9 1 0 .8 6 1 0 .6 0 1 0 .7 5 1 0 .7 8

3 1 0 .7 8 1 0 .6 7 1 0 .8 4 1 0 .7 9 1 0 .7 2

4 1 0 .5 9 1 0 .7 3 1 0 .8 1 1 0 .7 8 1 0 .7 3

5 1 0 .6 9 1 0 .7 1 1 0 .7 9 1 0 .7 6 1 0 .6 7

6 1 0 .7 5 1 0 .7 1 1 0 .7 4 1 0 .7 2 1 0 .6 1

7 1 0 .7 9 1 0 .7 1 1 0 .6 9 1 0 .8 8 1 0 .6 0

8 1 0 .7 4 1 0 .7 8 1 0 .1 1 1 0 .7 4 1 0 .7 5

9 1 0 .7 7 1 0 .7 7 1 0 .6 4 1 0 .6 4 1 0 .7 3

10 1 0 .7 2 1 0 .6 7 1 0 .7 1 1 0 .8 5 1 0 .7 1

11 1 0 .7 9 1 0 .8 2 1 0 .7 6 1 0 .6 6 1 0 .7 1

12 1 0 .6 2 1 0 .8 0 1 0 .8 2 1 0 .8 7 1 0 .7 3

13 1 0 .6 6 1 0 .8 2 1 0 .8 9 1 0 .5 4 1 0 .7 5

14 1 0 .8 1 1 0 .7 5 1 0 .8 6 1 0 .8 0 1 0 .7 0

15 1 0 .6 6 1 0 .6 8 1 0 .6 4 1 0 .7 5 1 0 .7 3

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Example:
Sample Mean and Range Charts
Calculate sample means, sample ranges,
grand mean, and average of sample ranges.
Observations
Sample 1 2 3 4 5 Mean Range
1 10.68 10.69 10.78 10.80 10.71 10.73 0.12
2 10.79 10.86 10.60 10.75 10.78 10.75 0.26
3 10.78 10.67 10.84 10.79 10.72 10.76 0.17
4 10.59 10.73 10.81 10.78 10.73 10.73 0.22
5 10.69 10.71 10.79 10.76 10.67 10.72 0.12
6 10.75 10.71 10.74 10.72 10.61 10.71 0.14
7 10.79 10.71 10.69 10.88 10.60 10.73 0.27
8 10.74 10.78 10.11 10.74 10.75 10.62 0.67
9 10.77 10.77 10.64 10.64 10.73 10.71 0.13
10 10.72 10.67 10.71 10.85 10.71 10.73 0.18
11 10.79 10.82 10.76 10.66 10.71 10.75 0.16
12 10.62 10.80 10.82 10.87 10.73 10.77 0.25
13 10.66 10.82 10.89 10.54 10.75 10.73 0.35
14 10.81 10.75 10.86 10.80 10.70 10.78 0.16
15 10.66 10.68 10.64 10.75 10.73 10.69 0.10
Averages 10.73 0.22
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Example:
Sample Mean and Range Charts
Determine Control
Limits From
FromTable
Table10-3
10-3
xxChart
ChartControl
ControlLimits
Limits Choose
Choosefactor
factorfor
forsample
sample
size
size
UCL
UCL== xx ++A
A22RR n A2 D3 D4
2 1.88 0 3.27
3 1.02 0 2.57
LCL
LCL==xx--A
A22RR 4 0.73 0 2.28
5 0.58 0 2.11
6 0.48 0 2.00
RR Chart
Chart Control
Control Limits
Limits 7 0.42 0.08 1.92
8 0.37 0.14 1.86
UCL
UCL == DD44RR
9
10
0.34
0.31
0.18
0.22
1.82
1.78
11 0.29 0.26 1.74
LCL
LCL == DD33RR

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Example:
Sample Mean and Range Charts
Create x-bar Chart and Plot Values
UCL A22RR
UCL==xx++A 10.728.58(0.2204
10.728 .58(0.2204))==10.856
10.856
LCL A22RR
LCL==xx--A 10.728
10.728--.58(0.2204
.58(0.2204))==10.601
10.601

10.800 UCL
10.780
10.760
10.740
10.720
Means

10.700
10.680
10.660
10.640
10.620
10.600 LCL
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Sample
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Example:
Sample Mean and Range Charts
Create R-chart and Plot Values
UCL==DD44RR 
UCL ((22.11 .2204))
.11)()(00.2204 0.46504
0.46504
LCL==DD3 RR 
LCL
3 .2204))
((00)()(00.2204 00

0 .8 0 0

0 .7 0 0

0 .6 0 0
UCL
0 .5 0 0

R 0 .4 0 0

0 .3 0 0

0 .2 0 0

0 .1 0 0 LCL
0 .0 0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
S a m p le

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 Sample Mean and Range Charts

Figure 10-11A.
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 Sample Mean and Range Charts

Figure 10-11B
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 Individual Unit Control Charts
Individual unit (X) control chart
Used to monitor single observations ( n = 1)

where
 = Process standard deviation
z = Standard Normal deviate (usually z = 3)
𝑋 = Average of individual observations (estimate of process
mean)

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 Moving Range Control Charts
Moving range (MR) control chart
 MR is difference between consecutive observations
 used to monitor dispersion or spread when n = 1

where
𝑅 = Average of moving ranges (absolute value of the
difference
between two consecutive observations)

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 Control Charts for Attributes
 p-Chart - Control chart used to monitor the
proportion of defectives in a process.
 c-Chart - Control chart used to monitor the
number of defects per unit.
Control charts for attributes are used when the process
characteristic is counted rather than measured.

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 Control Charts for Attributes
 p-Chart – for sample proportion of defectives
in a process
 c-Chart – for the number of defects per unit
p1  p 
p 
n

UCL p  p  z p UCLc c  z c
LCL p  p  z p LCLc c  z c
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 Use of p-Charts
 When observations can be placed into two
categories.
• Good or bad
• Pass or fail
• Operate or don’t operate
 When the data consists of multiple
samples of several observations each.
 Sample proportion of defectives.

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 Use of c-Charts
Use only when number of occurrences per
unit of measure can be counted; non-
occurrences cannot be counted.
• Scratches, chips, dents, or errors per item
• Cracks or faults per unit of distance
• Breaks or tears per unit of area
• Bacteria or pollutants per unit of volume
• Calls, complaints, failures per unit of time

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Process Capability
Three terms relate to the process capability:
 Design specifications
• Range of acceptable values established by
engineering design or customer requirements
 Process variability
• Natural variability in a process
 Process capability
• Ability of a process to meet the design
specification
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Process Capability Indices
specification width
Process capability ratio=
process width
If the process is centered use Cp

Cp = Upper specification – lower specification

6
If the process is not centered use Cpk
Smaller of:
Process mean – Lower specification and Upper specification – Process mean
3 3

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Capability Example
The design specification for the width of a part is between 101 mm and
101.8 mm (= .8 mm). Which of these machines are capable?

Standard Machine Machine

Machine Deviation Variability Capability
 6 Cp = spec/6
A 0.13 0.78 0.80/0.78 = 1.03

B 0.08 0.48 0.80/0.48 = 1.67

C 0.16 0.96 0.80/0.96 = 0.83

Cp > 1.33 is desirable

Cp = 1.00 process is barely capable
Cp < 1.00 process is not capable
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Process Capability Analysis

Figure 10-16
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Capability Analysis
Capable = process output falls within specifications.

 If incapable:
1. Redesign process or reduce variability
2. Use alternative process
3. Use 100-percent inspection
4. Examine/relax design specification

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Process Capability Example: Cookie
Packages
 A company creates small packages of cookies in a 16
gram package. Government standards state that
weights must be within ± 5 percent of the weight
advertised on the package.
 The design specifications are:
Upper design specification = 16 + .05(16) = 16.8 grams
Lower design specification = 16 – .05(16) = 15.2 grams
 Inspectors test 1,000 packages of cookies and find an
average weight of 15.875 grams with a standard
deviation of .529 grams.

Is the process capable?

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 Process Capability Example: Cookie
Packages
 Specification Limits
• Upper Spec = 16.8 g What is the Cpk index for
• Lower Spec = 15.2 g this process?
 Observed Weight
• Mean = 15.875 g
• Std Dev = .529 g

15.875  15.2 16.8  15.875 

C pk Min  ; 
 3(.529) 3(.529) 
C pk Min.4253; .5829 C pk .4253

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What does a Cpk of .4253 mean?
 An index that shows how well the units being
produced fit within the specification limits.
 Process considered capable if Cpk  1.
 This process will produce a relatively high
number of defects.
 Many companies look for a Cpk of 1.3 or better…
Six-Sigma companies want 2.0!

Bigger is
Better!

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 Six Sigma Quality
Goal: achieving process variability so small that the half-width
of design specification equals six standard deviations of the
process.
• Cpk = 2.00 = only 3.4 units per million outside design
specification

Figure 10-17
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 Concept Check
A methodology that is used to show how well
parts being produced fit into a range specified
by design limits is ….?
Answer: a.
a) Capability analysis Capability
b) Six Sigma
analysis
c) Range Chart
d) Mean Chart
e) None of the above

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 Concept Check
You want to prepare a p-chart and you
observe 200 samples with 10 in each, and
find 5 defective units. What is the resulting
“proportion defective”?
a) 25
b) 2.5
c) 0.0025
d) 0.00025
e) Can not be computed on data above

Answer: c. 0.0025 (5/(200x10)=0.0025)

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 Concept Check
You want to prepare an x-bar chart. If the number of
observations in a “subgroup” is 10, what is the
appropriate “factor” used in the computation of the
UCL and LCL?
a) 1.88
b) 0.31
c) 0.22
d) 1.78
e) None of the above

Answer: b. 0.31 (from Table 10-3)

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 Concept Check
You want to prepare an R chart. If the
number of observations in a sample is 5, what
is the appropriate “factor” used in the
computation of the LCL?
a) 0
b) 0.88
c) 1.88 Answer: a. 0
d) 2.11 (from Table 10-3)
e) None of the above

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 Summary
 Statistical process control and control charts focus on detecting
departures from stability in a process.
 Variation types are random and assignable.
 Sample mean control charts are used to monitor the process mean.
 Sample range control charts are used to monitor process dispersion
or spread.
 Individual unit X control charts are used for single observations (n =
1).
 Moving range control charts monitor the dispersion or spread of the
differences between consecutive observations.
 p-charts are used to monitor the proportion of defective items.
 c-charts are used to monitor the number of defects per unit product.
 If a sample statistic falls outside control limits or its series has a
pattern, then the process is out of control.
 Run test is used to determine if a nonrandom pattern exists.
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 Learning Checklist
 Briefly explain the statistical process control
(SPC) process.
 Explain how control charts are designed and the
concepts that underlie their use.
 Select and create an appropriate SPC charts.
 Explain the use of capability analysis.
 Analyze the capability of a process.
 Describe Six Sigma quality.
 Explain how design of experiments can be used to
improve processes.
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