UNIT-VI-MWOC-2024

Mrs V.Sudha Rani, A.M.I.E,M.E,M.I.E.,

Assistant Professor,SNIST
 V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
PROFESSOR
2
FIBER OPTIC CABLE
 FIBER OPTIC CABLE
 Fiber Optic Core: the inner light-carrying member with a
high index of refraction.

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
 Cladding: the middle layer, which serves to confine the
light to the core. It has a lower index of refraction.

 Buffer: The outer layer, which serves as a "shock absorber"

to protect the core and cladding from damage. The coating
usually comprises one or more coats of a plastic material to
protect the fiber from the physical environment.

 3
UNIT-VI (J.M.SENIOR(UNIT3,5,8]
 Transmission Characteristics Of Optical Fiber[Unit3]
–

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
 Attenuation

 Material Losses absorption in silica glass fiber

 Linear and Non Linear Scattering Losses

 Intra and Inter-Modal Dispersion

 All Over Fiber Dispersion

 Optical fiber connectors[5],

 fiber alignment and Joint Losses

 Fiber Splicer

 Fiber Connectors 4
UNIT-VI (J.M.SENIOR(UNIT3,5,8]
 Expanded Beam Connectors
 Fiber Couplers.

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
 Optical Detectors[8]:

 Physical principles of PIN

 APD

 Comparison of Photo detectors.

5
 PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
TRANSMISSION
CHARACTERISTICS OF
FIBER-UNIT-VI-PART-I
6 .
 UNIT-VI –PART-I SYLLABUS
 Transmission Characteristics Of Optical
Fiber[Unit3] –

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
 Attenuation

 Material Losses absorption in silica glass

fiber
 Linear and Non Linear Scattering Losses

 Intra and Inter-Modal Dispersion

 All Over Fiber Dispersion

7
UNIT-VI (J.M.SENIOR(UNIT3,5,8]
 Expanded Beam Connectors
 Fiber Couplers.

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
 Optical Detectors[8]:

 Physical principles of PIN

 APD

 Comparison of Photo detectors.

8
 INTRODUCTION
 Light signal undergoes several losses during
its travel down the Optical fiber

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
 Such losses are attenuation losses are

simply attenuation.
 A major design factor in any communication

system is losses.
 It’s a major of performance of transmission

media (In our case optical fiber).

 Losses probable at several points of fiber,

such as couplers, connector and splices. 9

 LOSSES-INTRODUCTION
 Losses Plays important role during estimation
of maximum distance between Tx. and Rx.
 Sources: Absorption, scattering and

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
radiation losses of optical energy.
 Units: Usually in decibels (dB). In tele-comm.

applications.
 dB: compares the power levels, input and out

put For a particular wavelength.

10
 ATTENUATION
 Ratio of Input power (Pi) to output power (Po).
Mathematically,

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
1  P0 
 dB or    10 log10  
L  Pi 
 L: Length of Fiber (Km usually).
 α(dB) or [α]:attenuation/length.

11
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
PROFESSOR
12
 ATTENUATION
 Horizontal axis is wavelength in nm ranges
from 600 nm to 1800nm. Vertical axis

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
[α]/km/
 Peaks and vallies are shown in the diagram.

 Peak is seen at 1400 nm. Valley at 1800nm

latter gradual raise.

13
COMMENT OF FIGURE.1..
 Windowsare at 850nm, 1300nm and
1450 nm.

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
14
 ABSORPTION LOSS

Absorption loss is related to the material
composition and fabrication process of fiber.
 Absorption loss results in dissipation of some optical

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
power as heat in the fiber cable.
 Although glass fibers are extremely pure, some

impurities still remain as residue after purification.

 The amount of absorption by these impurities

depends on their concentration and light

wavelength.
 There are three types of Absorption.

1.Atomic absorption
15
2.Extrinsic absorption
3.Intrinsic absorption.
 1.ABSORPTION BY ATOMIC
DEFECTS
 Atomic defects are imperfections in the atomic structure
of the fiber materials such as missing molecules, high
density clusters of atom groups.
 These absorption losses are negligible compared with

intrinsic and extrinsic losses.

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
 The absorption effect is most significant when fiber is

exposed to ionizing radiation in nuclear reactor, medical

therapies, space missions etc.
 The radiation damages are proportional to the intensity

of ionizing particles.
 This results in increasing attenuation due to atomic

defects and absorbing optical energy.

 The higher the radiation intensity more the attenuation

as shown in Figure 16

 V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
PROFESSOR
17
ATOMIC ABSORPTION
.

 II-EXTRINSIC ABSORPTION
 Extrinsic absorption is by impurity atoms in
glass material.
 These are major contributors in a practical

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
fiber
 Impurities include

 Metallic ions such as Iron (Fe),Copper(Cu) ,

Chromium (Cr) , Vanadium(Va),Hydrogen (H)

 The impurities mentioned are bonded in group-

and have fundamental vibrations .

 Occur at wavelengths between 2.7μm and
18
1.2 μm.
 EXTRINSIC ABSORPTION..

 This depending on group positions in glass

network.

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
 Fundamental vibrations gives harmonic over

tones at 1.38μm, 0.95 μm and 0.72 μm .

19
VARIATION OF ABSOPRTION WITH
WAVELENGTH IN SILICA

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
20
 EXTRINSIC ABSORPTION..
 Besides these combinations of fundamental
vibrations and harmonic overtones also occur at
1.24μm, 1.13μm and 1.24μm and 0.88 μm (Shown

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
in red arrows).

21
 III-INTRINSIC ABSORPTION
 This is by constituent atoms of the fiber
material.

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
 This is natural property of glass.

 Even purest glass can absorb heavily with

specific wavelength regions.

 This is very strong in UV portion of short

wavelength EM spectrum…

22
 INTRINSIC ABSORPTION
 Strong electronic and molecular transition
are responsible for this.

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
 However, operating region of Optical fiber is

so far from UV region. Besides this glass

absorbs light in Infra red region also.

23
SCATTERING LOSSES

 Scattering is loss of optical energy

 Imperfections in fiber, and basic structure of

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
fiber contributes to this.
Linear scattering

 Scattering

Nonlinear scattering
24
 LINEAR SCATTERING
 This causes transfer of some or all of
optical power

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
 Contained with in a propagation mode

 Linearly in to different propagation mode.

 This results radiation of light instead of

propagation through core.

 Linear scattering is proportional to mode

power.
 No change of frequency after scattering.
25
LINEAR SCATTERING
.

Rayliegh Scattering

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
Linear
scattering
Mie Scattering

26
 RAYLEIGH SCATTERING LOSSES-
LINEAR
 Rayleigh Scattering Losses
 Scattering losses exists because of microscopic

variations in the material density and composition.

 Glass is composed molecules and several oxides

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
(e.g. SiO2, GeO2and P2O5), are the major cause of
compositional structure fluctuation.
 These two effects results to variation in refractive

index and Rayleigh type scattering of light.

 Rayleigh scattering of light is due to small localized

changes in the refractive index of the core and

cladding material.

27
 There are two causes during the manufacturing
of fiber.
 The first is due to fluctuation in mixing of ingredients.

The random changes because of this are impossible

to eliminate completely.
 The other cause is light changes in density as the

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
silica cools and solidifies.
 When light ray strikes such zones it gets scattered in

all directions.
 The amount of scatter depends on the size of the

discontinuity compared with the wavelength of the

light
 The shortest wavelength (highest frequency) suffers

most scattering.
28
RAYLEIGH SCATTERING LOSSES-LINEAR
 The shortest wavelength (highest frequency)
suffers most scattering.

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
29
 RAYLEIGH SCATTERING LOSSES-
LINEAR

 Scattering loss for single component glass is givenby,

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
 where,n= Refractiveindex
 kB=Boltzmann’sconstant

 βT=Isothermal compressibility of material

 Tf=Temperature at which density fluctuations are frozen into theglass as it solidifies (fictive

temperature)


Anotherformofequationis
 … (2.3.2)

 where, P=Photoelasticcoefficient
 where, = Mean square refractive indexfluctuation


 =Volumeoffiber
 Multimode fibers have higher dopant concentrations and greater compositional
30
fluctuations.Theoveralllossesinthisfibersaremoreascomparedtosinglemode
 V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
PROFESSOR
31
Another form of equation is



 where, P=Photo elastic coefficient
 where, = Mean square refractive index
fluctuation

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
 =Volume of fiber
 Multimode fibers have higher dopant concentrations

and greater compositional fluctuations .

 The over all losses in this fibers are more as

compared to single mode fibers.

32
 MIE SCATTERING-LINEAR
 Mie Scattering:
 Linear scattering losses at in homogeneities and

these rise from imperfections in the fiber’s

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
geometry.
 Irregularities in the refractive index and the

presence of bubbles etc. caused during

manufacture.
 Careful control of manufacturing process can reduce

Mie scattering to insignificant levels.

33
 NON LINEAR SCATTERING
 Nonlinear scattering causes the optical power from
one mode to be transferred in either the forward or
backward direction to the same, or other modes, at
a different frequency.
 It depends upon the optical power density within

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
the fiber .
 The most important types of nonlinear scattering

within optical fibers are

1. Stimulated Brillouin Scattering

2. Raman scattering,
 They are observed at high optical power densities

in long single-mode fibers.

 These scattering mechanisms in fact give optical

gain but with a shift in frequency, hence attenuation

34

for light transmission at a specific wavelength.

STIMULATED BRILLOUIN SCATTERING-
NONLINEAR
 Stimulated Brillouin scattering is the modulation of
light through thermal molecular vibrations within the
fiber.
 The scattered light appears as upper and lower

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
sidebands which are separated from the incident
light by the modulation frequency.
 The incident photon in this scattering process

produces a phonon* of acoustic frequency as well as

a scattered photon.
 This produces an optical frequency shift which varies

with the scattering angle.

 The frequency of the sound wave varies with

acoustic wavelength. 35
 The frequency shift is a maximum in the backward
direction, reducing to zero in the forward direction.
 SBS a mainly backward process.

 Brillouin scattering is only significant above a

threshold power density. Assuming that the

polarization state of the transmitted light is not

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
maintained, it may be shown that the threshold
power PB is given by:


 where d and λ are the fiber core diameter and the

operating wavelength, respectively, both measured in
micrometers,
 αdB is the fiber attenuation in decibels per kilo meter

 ν is the source bandwidth (i.e. injection laser) in giga

36
hertz.
 STIMULATED RAMAN SCATTERING-
NONLINEAR

 Stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) is similar to SBS

except that a high-frequency optical phonon rather
than an acoustic phonon is generated in the

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
scattering process.
 SRS can occur in both the forward and backward

directions in an optical fiber,

 Optical power threshold of up to three orders of

magnitude higher than the Brillouin threshold in a

particular fiber.

37
 BENDINGLOSS
(MACROBENDING&MICROBENDING)
 Macrobending Loss:
 The curvature of the bend is much larger than fiber

diameter.
 Light wave suffers sever loss due to radiation of the

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
evanescent field in the cladding region.
 As the radius of the curvature decreases, the loss

increases exponentially until it reaches at a certain

critical radius.
 For any radius a bit smaller than this point, the

losses suddenly becomes extremely large.

 Higher order modes radiate away faster than lower

order modes.
 38
 V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
PROFESSOR
39
MACRO BENDING & MICRO BENDING)
 V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
PROFESSOR
40
MACRO BENDING
 V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
PROFESSOR
41
BENDING LOSS(MACROBENDING)
 MICRO BENDING
 Micro bending is a loss due to small bending or
distortions.
 This small micro bending is not visible.

 The losses due to this are temperature related,

tensile related or crush related.

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
 Micro bending loss is radiation loss in optical

waveguide results from mode coupling caused by

random micro bends of the optical fiber.
 Micro bends are repetitive small scale fluctuations

in the radius of curvature of the fiber axis.

 They are caused either by non uniformities in the

manufacturing of the fiber or by non uniform

lateral pressures created during the cabling of the
fiber.
42
 An increase in attenuation results from micro bending
 MICRO BENDING
 Micro bending losses can be minimized by
placing a compressible jacket over the fiber.
 When external forces are applied to this

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
configuration, the jacket will be deformed but the
fiber will tend to stay relatively straight.

43
 MICRO BENDING LOSS
Microscopic bends of the fiber axis that can arise
when the fibers are incorporated into cables.
 The power is dissipated through the micro bended

fiber, because of the repetitive coupling of energy

between guided modes & the leaky or

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
radiation modes in the fiber.

44
 V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
PROFESSOR
45
BENDING LOSS
DISPERSION IN OPTICAL FIBERS
 Dispersion:
 It is a phenomenon in which the velocity of

propagation of any electromagnetic wave is

wavelength dependent.

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
 In communication, dispersion is used to describe
any process by which any electromagnetic signal
propagating in a physical medium is degraded .
 The various wave characteristics (i.e., frequencies)

of the signal have different propagation velocities

within the physical medium.

46
 DISPERSION IN OPTICAL FIBERS
 There are 3 dispersion types in the optical fibers,
They are
1.Chromatic Dispersion
a. Material Dispersion

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
b. Waveguide Dispersion
(Material Dispersion+Waveguide Dispersion =
Chromatic Dispersion)
2.Polarization Dispersion
3.Modal Dispersion
Dispersion
 Material & waveguide dispersions are main

causes of Intra modal Dispersion or Chromatic

47
Dispersion
DISPERSION IN OPTICAL FIBERS(FIGURE
DISPERSION AND ATTENUATION IN FIBER)

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
48
 MATERIAL DISPERSION
 Material dispersion is Chromatic dispersion.
 Material dispersion exists due to change in index

of refraction of core for different

wavelengths.
 A light ray contains components of various

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
wavelengths centered at wavelength λ10.
 The time delay is different for different wavelength
components.
 This results in time dispersion of pulse at the

receiving end of fiber.

49
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
PROFESSOR
50
 V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
PROFESSOR
51
MATERIAL DISPERSION
 WAVE GUIDE DISPERSION
 Waveguide dispersion is caused by the
difference in the index of refraction between
the core and cladding.

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
 It results in a ‘drag’ effect between the core and

cladding portions of the power.

 Waveguide dispersion is significant only in fibers

carrying fewer than 5-10 modes.

 Multimode optical fibers carry hundreds of

modes, hence they will not have observable

waveguide dispersion.
52
 CHROMATIC DISPERSION
The combination of material dispersion and
waveguide dispersion is called chromatic
dispersion.

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
 These losses primarily depend on the (1)Spectral

width of transmitter(2)Choice of correct wavelength.

53
 2.POLARIZATION
DISPERSION
 Different frequency component of a pulse
acquires different polarization state (such as
linear polarization and circular polarization).
 This result in pulse broadening is known as

polarization mode dispersion (PMD).

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
 PMD is the limiting factor for optical communication

system at high data rates.

 The effects of PMD must be compensated.

54
 3.MODAL DISPERSION
 Only a certain number of modes can propagate
down the fiber,
 Each of these modes carries the modulation signal and

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
each one is incident on the boundary at a
different angle.
 They will each have their own individual

propagation times.
 The net effect is spreading of pulse, this forms a

dispersion is called modal dispersion.

 Modal dispersion takes place in multimode fibers.

 It is moderately present in graded index fibers

and almost eliminated in single mode step index 55

fibers.
 PULSE BROADENING IN GI FIBERS
 The core refractive index varies radially in case of
graded index fibers,

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
 It supports multimode propagation with a low inter

modal delay distortion and high data rate over

long distance is possible.
 The higher order modes travelling in outer regions of

the core, will travel faster than the lower order

modes travelling in high refractive index region.
 If the index profile is carefully controlled, then the

transit times of the individual modes will be identical,

so eliminating modal dispersion.
56
 The r.m.s pulse broadening is given as:
INTER MODEL DISPERSION
σintermodal – R.M.S pulse width due to intermodal
delay distortion.,

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
 σ
intermodal – R.M.S pulse width resulting from pulse
broadening within each mode.

 The intermodal delay and pulse broadening are

related by expression given by Personick.


57
 The intra modal pulse broadening is given as :

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
58
 PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
TRANSMISSION
CHARACTERISTICS OF
FIBER-UNIT-VI-PART-II
59 .
UNIT-VI-PART-II-SYLLABUS
 Optical fiber connectors[5],
 fiber alignment and Joint Losses

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
 Fiber Splicer

 Fiber Connectors

 Expanded Beam Connectors

 Fiber Couplers.

60
 OPTICAL FIBER CONNECTORS
 The connectors mechanically couple and align
the cores of fibers so light can pass.
 An optical fiber connector is a flexible device

that connects fiber cables requiring a quick

connection and disconnection.

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
 Optical fiber connectors ensure stable connections,

as they ensure the fiber ends are optically smooth

and the end-to-end positions are properly aligned.
 Most fiber connectors are spring loaded.

 The main components of an optical fiber connector

are a ferrule, sub-assembly body, cable, stress

relief boot and connector housing.

61
 OPTICAL FIBER CONNECTORS
 The ferrule is made of hardened material like
stainless steel and tungsten carbide.
 The connector body holds the ferrule and the

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
coupling device serves the purpose of male-female
configuration.
 The fiber types for fiber optic connectors are

categorized into simplex, duplex and multiple

fiber connectors.
 Multiple fiber connectors can have two or more fibers

terminated in the connector.

 Optical connectors make use of the fiber mating
62
sleeve for connection purposes.
 OPTICAL FIBER CONNECTORS
 Common optical fiber connectors include
biconic, D4, ESCON, FC, FDDI, LC and SC.

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
 Biconic connectors use precision tapered ends to
have low insertion loss.

 D4 connectors have a keyed body for easy

intermateability.

 ESCON connectors are commonly used to connect

from a wall outlet to a device. 63
 V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
PROFESSOR
64
EXPANDED BEAM CONNECTORS
 V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
PROFESSOR
65
FIBER ALIGNMENT AND JOINT LOSSES
 FIBER ALIGNMENT AND JOINT
LOSSES
 A major consideration with all types of fiber–fiber
connection is the optical loss at the interface.
 Though the two jointed fiber ends are smooth

and perpendicular to the fiber axes, and the two

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
fiber axes are perfectly aligned, a small
proportion of the light may be reflected back
into the transmitting fiber causing
attenuation at the joint.
 This phenomenon, known as Fresnel reflection.

 It is associated with the step changes in

refractive index at the jointed interface (i.e.

glass–air–glass).
 The magnitude of this partial reflection of the light
66
transmitted through the interface is given by using
the Fresnel formula
 FIBER ALIGNMENT AND JOINT
LOSSES
 where r is the fraction of the light reflected at a
single interface,
 n1 is the refractive index of the fiber core

 n is the refractive index of the medium

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
between the two jointed fibers (i.e. for air n =1).
 The loss in decibels at a fiber joint due to Fresnel

reflection at a single interface is given by:

 Using the above equations it is possible to determine

the optical attenuation due to Fresnel reflection
at a fiber–fiber joint.
67
 FIBER ALIGNMENT AND JOINT LOSSES

 If the index-matching fluid has the same

refractive index as the fiber core, losses due
to Fresnel reflection can be eradicated.

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
 Fresnel reflection is only one possible source of

optical loss at a fiber joint.

 Any deviations in the geometrical and optical

parameters of the two optical fibers which are

jointed will affect the optical attenuation
(insertion loss) through the connection.

68
 FIBER ALIGNMENT AND JOINT
LOSSES

 Inherent connection problems when joining the

fibers are

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
 Due to different core and/or cladding

diameters;
 Due to different numerical apertures and/or
relative refractive index differences;
 Due to different refractive index profiles;

 Due to fiber faults (core ellipticity, core

concentricity, etc.).
 The losses caused by the above factors together

with those of Fresnel reflection are usually 69

referred to as intrinsic joint losses.
 V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
PROFESSOR
70
FIBER ALIGNMENT AND JOINT LOSSES
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
PROFESSOR
71
 FIBER SPLICERS
 The splicing of optical fibers is used to join two optical
fiber cables for permanent connection.
 This technique is also known as termination or

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
connecterization.
 This method is mostly preferred when two types of

cables (for example 48-fiber cable and 12-fiber cable)

are joined together for a longer run with a
single length of fiber cable.
 There are two techniques in splicing of optical fibers

depending on the insertion loss, cost, and

performance characteristics.
 They are fusion splicing and mechanical splicing. 72
FIBER SPLICERS
 The mechanical splicing is again divided into two
types .They are

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
 V-grooved splicing

 Elastic-tube splicing.

 The two optical fiber cables should be aligned

properly while splicing.

 Fiber geometrical factors and the mechanical

strength should be considered while splicing.

73
 ADVANTAGES AND DIS ADVANTAGES
OF FIBER SPLICING
 Dis advantages of Fiber splicing
 It is used for long-distance transmission of optical or

light signals.
 The loss of back reflection is less during the light

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
transmission
 It gives permanent and Semi-permanent

connections between the two optical fiber cables.

 It can be employed in both single-mode and

multimode optical fiber cables.

 Dis advantages of Fiber splicing

 The fiber losses will be more during the

Transmission of light.
 If the splicing is increased, then the cost of optical 74

transmission or communication system will be more.

 1.ELECTRIC FUSION SPLICING
 This technique of splicing gives the permanent
connection between the two optical fiber cables
and gives a longer life with less attenuation.

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
 The two cores of fiber cables are joined or fused

electrically or thermally.
 An electric device or an electrical arc is used

to fuse the two fiber optic cables and produces a

connection between them.
 This technique is very costly and works for a

longer period.
75
 V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
PROFESSOR
76
ELECTRIC ARC FUSION SLICING
 ELECTRIC FUSION SPLICING
 In this method, the two fiber cables are aligned
together by using a device called a fusion splicer.
 Cables can be fused or joined together to form a

connection with the help of an electric arc more

precisely.

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
 The heat produced by the electric arc can give a

transparent and continuous non-reflective

connection between the two optical fiber cables with
less attention, and insertion losses.

77
 ELECTRIC ARC FUSION SLICING-ADV-
DISADV
 Advantages
 The light loss will be low in Electric Arc Fusion

Slicing
 It is most widely used and expensive than

mechanical splicing of optical fiber cable. It helps

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
to align the optical fibers with more precision
 It helps to create an electric arc or heat to fuse or

join or weld the optical fibers together

 This method has less attention loss, back reflection

loss is low, insertion losses are less in both

multimode and single-mode optical fiber
splicing.
 Disadvantages

 If excess heat is generated to melt the fiber cable

78
for joining, then the joint would be delicate and
can’t be used for a longer run.
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
PROFESSOR
79
2-MECHANICAL SPLICING
B.V-GROOVED SPLICING

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
80
 MECHANICAL SPLICER –V GROOVE
SPLICING
 It uses a substrate in a V-shape made up of
ceramic, silicon, plastic, or any other metal.
 The ends of two optical fiber cables are placed in

the groove .

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
 When the two ends are placed in the groove in

proper alignment, they are joined together by using

index matching gel and gives a perfect grip to
the connection.

81
MECHANICAL SPLICER –V GROOVE
SPLICING
 In this type, the fiber losses are more because
of cladding diameter, core diameter, and position
of the core to the center.

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
 It doesn’t form a permanent connection.

 It is used for Semi-permanent connections.

82
MECHANICAL SPLICING- ELASTIC
TUBE SPLICING

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
83
MECHANICAL SPLICING- ELASTIC
TUBE SPLICING
 An elastic tube is used to form a connection
between the two optical fiber cables.

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
 It is mainly used for multimode optical fiber

cables.
 The fiber losses are low and almost the same as

in the fusion splicing type.

 It requires less equipment and skill set to install

and repair when compared to fusion splicing.

84
 MECHANICAL SPLICING- ELASTIC
TUBE SPLICING
 An elastic-tube called rubber with a small hole is
used.
 The diameter of the optical fiber for splicing should

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
be more than the diameter of the hole in the rubber.
 The two ends of the optical fine cables have

tampered with for easy insertion without any loss

into the tube.
 If the optical fiber is inserted inside the hole, then

the asymmetrical force exerted on the fiber cable

gives the proper alignment and expansion to form a
connection between the fiber cables.
 The optical fiber cable moves to the tube axis and
85
the diameters of the fiber cable are spliced.
 V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
PROFESSOR
86
FIBER COUPLERS
 An optical fiber coupler distributes light from a main
fiber into one or more branch fibers.
 The latter case is more normal and such devices are

known as multiport fiber couplers.

 Optical fiber couplers are passive devices in which

the power transfer takes place

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
 Core interaction type

 Power transfer takes place through the fiber core

cross-section by butt jointing the fibers or by using

some form of imaging optics between the fibers
 Surface interaction type

 Power transfer takes place through the fiber surface

and normal to its axis by converting the guided core

modes to both cladding and refracted modes which
then enable the power-sharing mechanism 87
 FIBER COUPLERS
 Multiport optical fiber couplers can be subdivided
into the following three main groups
 Three- and four-port* couplers, which are used

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
for signal splitting, distribution and combining.
 Star couplers, which are generally used for

distributing a single input signal to multiple outputs.

 Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) devices, are

a specialized form of coupler designed to permit a

number of different peak wavelength optical signals
to be transmitted in parallel on a single fiber.

88
 FIBER COUPLERS
 WDM(Wavelength multiplexer or De multiplexer)
couplers either combine the different wavelength
optical signal onto the fiber (i.e. multiplex) or

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
separate the different wavelength optical signals
output from the fiber (i.e. demultiplex).
 Ideal fiber couplers should distribute light among

the branch fibers with no scattering loss.

 Another coupling technique is to incorporate a beam

splitter element between the fibers.

89
FIBER COUPLERS. (A) THREE-PORT COUPLERS; (B) FOUR-
PORT COUPLER; (C) STAR COUPLER; (D) WAVELENGTH DIVISION
MULTIPLEXING AND DE MULTIPLEXING COUPLERS

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
90
 PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
TRANSMISSION
CHARACTERISTICS OF
FIBER-UNIT-VI-PART-III
91 .
UNIT-VI-PART-III-SYLLABUS
 Optical Detectors[8]:
 Physical principles of PIN

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
 APD

 Comparison of Photo detectors.

92
 V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
PROFESSOR
93
DIGITAL FIBER TRANSMISSION LINK
 PHOTO DETECTORS
 These are Opto-electric devices i.e. to convert the
optical signal back into electrical impulses.
 The light detectors are commonly made up of

semiconductor material.
 Photo detectors made up of semi conductor

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
material. When the light strikes the light detector a
current is produced in the external circuit .
 This current is proportional to the intensity of the

incident light.
 Optical signal generally is weakened and distorted

when it emerges from the end of the fiber.

94
 REQUIREMENTS OF A PHOTO
DETECTOR
 A high sensitivity to the emission wavelength
range of the received light signal
 A minimum addition of noise to the signal

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
 A fast response speed to handle the desired data

rate
 Be in sensitive to temperature variations

 Be compatible with the physical dimensions of

the fiber
 Have a long operating lifetime.

95
 PARAMETERS OF A PHOTODETECTOR
 QuantumEfficiency
 It is the ratio of primary electron-hole pairs created

by incident photon to the photon incident on the

diode material.
 Detector Responsivity

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
 This is the ratio of output current to input optical

power. Hence this is the efficiency of the device.

 Spectral Response Range

 This is the range of wavelengths over which the

device will operate.

 Noise Characteristics

 The level of noise produced in the device is critical to

its operation at low level

96
 PARAMETERS OF A PHOTODETECTOR
 Response Time This is a measure of how quickly
the detector can respond to variations in the input
light intensity.

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
 Types of Light Detectors

 PIN Photo diode

 Avalanche Photo diode

97
 PHOTO DETECTORS
PIN DIODE -PRINCIPLE
 The high electricfield present inthe depletion region
causes photo-generated carriers to separate and be
collected across the reverse –biased junction.

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
 This give rise to a current Flow in an external circuit,

known as photocurrent.

98
 PHOTO DETECTORS
PIN DIODE -PRINCIPLE
 When photon enters photo detector, the low band
gap absorption layer absorbs the photon, and an
electron-hole pair is generated.

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
 This electron hole pair is called photo carrier.

 These photo carriers, under the influence of a strong

electric field generated by a reverse bias potential

difference .
 It produce photocurrent proportional to number of

incident photons.

99
 PHOTO DETECTORS
PIN DIODE –CONSTRUCTION-WORKING
 The device structure consists of p and n
semiconductor regions separated by a very lightly n-
doped intrinsic (i) region.

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
 In normal operation a reverse-bias voltage is applied

across the device so that no free electrons or holes

exist in the intrinsic region.
 Incident photon having energy greater than or equal

to the band gap energy of the semiconductor

material, give up its energy and excite an electron
from the valence band to the conduction band

100
 V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
101

PROFESSOR
PIN DIODE –CONSTRUCTION-
WORKING
 The high electric field present in the depletion region
causes photo generated carriers to separate and be
collected across the reverse – biased junction.
 This gives rise to a current flow in an external circuit,

known as photocurrent.
 Photo carriers:

 Incident photon, generates free(mobile)electron-hole pairs

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
in the intrinsic region.
 These charge carriers are known as photo carriers, since

they are generated by a photon.

 Photocurrent:

 The electric field across the device causes the photo

carriers to be swept out of the intrinsic region,

 They give rise to a current flow in an external circuit.

 This current flow is known as the photocurrent.

102
 An incident photon is able to boost an electron to the
conduction band only if it has an energy that is
greater than or equal to the band gap energy
 Beyond a certain wavelength, the light will not be

absorbed by the material since the wave length of a

photon is inversely proportional to its energy

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
103
 PIN DIODE –CONSTRUCTION-
WORKING
 The upper wavelength λc cutoff is determined by the
band-gap energy Eg of the material.

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
 As the charge carriers flow through the material

some of them recombine and disappear.

 The charge carriers move a distance Ln or Lp for

electrons and holes before recombining .This

Distance is known as diffusion length
 The time it take to recombine is its life time τn

or τp respectively.
 Ln=(Dn τn )1/2and Lp=(Dp τp )1/2

 Where Dn and Dp are the diffusion coefficients for

104
electrons and holes respectively.
 The high electric field present in the depletion region
causes photo generated carriers to separate and be
collected across the reverse – biased junction.
 This gives rise to a current flow in an external circuit,

known as photocurrent.
 Photo carriers:

 Incident photon, generates free(mobile)electron-hole pairs

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
in the intrinsic region.
 These charge carriers are known as photo carriers, since

they are generated by a photon.

 Photocurrent:

 The electric field across the device causes the photo

carriers to be swept out of the intrinsic region,

 They give rise to a current flow in an external circuit.

 This current flow is known as the photocurrent.

105
 PIN DIODE –CONSTRUCTION-
WORKING
 The upper wavelength λc cutoff is determined by the
band-gap energy Eg of the material.

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
 As the charge carriers flow through the material

some of them recombine and disappear.

 The charge carriers move a distance Ln or Lp for

electrons and holes before recombining .This

Distance is known as diffusion length
 The time it take to recombine is its life time τn

or τp respectively.
 Ln=(Dn τn )1/2and Lp=(Dp τp )1/2

 Where Dn and Dp are the diffusion coefficients for

106
electrons and holes respectively.
PIN DIODE –CONSTRUCTION-
WORKING
 Optical power absorbed, P(x), in the depletion
region can be written in terms of incident optical
power, Pin :

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
 αs is the photon absorption coefficient, X is the
distance

107
S.N
o Parameter PIN DIODE
1 Sensitivity
Less sensitive(0-
12dB)

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
2 Biasing
Low reverse biased
voltage(5to10V)
3
Wavelength 300-1100
region nm
4 Gain
No Internal
gain 108
 AVALANCHE PHOTO DIODE
 All detectors require a certain minimum current to
operate reliably.
 The current requirement translates into a minimum

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
power requirement through Pin=IpR Pin=IpR.
 Detectors with a large responsivity R are preferred

since they require less optical power.

 The responsivity of p–i–n photodiodes is limited

while Avalanche photodiode (APDs) can have much

larger values of R.

109
 AVALANCHE PHOTO DIODE
 APD is similar to PIN diode the exception is the
addition of high intensity electric field region.

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
110
 In this region primary electron hole pairs are generated
by the incident photons which are able to absorb
enough kinetic energy from strong electric field to
collide with the atoms present in this region, thus
generating more electron hole pairs.

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
111
 WORKING OF AVALANCHE PHOTO DIODE
 The physical phenomenon behind the internal
current gain is known as the impact ionization.
 This impact ionization leads to avalanche breakdown

in ordinary reverse bias.

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
 It requires very high reverse bias voltage in order

that the new carriers created by impact ionization

can them selves produce additional carriers by same
mechanism.

112
 WORKING OF APD

 The physical phenomenon behind the internal

current gain is known as the impact ionization.
 This impact ionization leads to avalanche breakdown

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
in ordinary reverse bias.
 It requires very high reverse bias voltage in order

that the new carriers created by impact ionization

can them selves produce additional carriers by same
mechanism.

113
 WORKING OF APD

 This process of generating more than one electron

hole pair from incident photon through ionization
process is referred to as the avalanche effect.

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
 Thus the avalanche multiplication results in

amplification of photodiode current.

 Multiplication factor: Multiplication factor M is a

measure of internal gain provided by APD. It is

defined as the ratio of total multiplied output current
to the primary un multiplied current.
 M=I/ Ip M=I / Ip

 Where I is the Total multiplied output current

 Ip is the primary un multiplied current. 114

 WORKING OF APD

 Multiplication depends on physical and operational

characteristics of photo detector device.
 Operational characteristics include the

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
 width of avalanche region,

 the strength of electric field and

 type of semiconductor material employed.

115
Sr no. PINdiode APD(Avalanche
photodiode)
1 PIN does not have high intensity APD has high intensity
electric field region. electric field region.
2 Photo current(IpIp)generated is less Photo current (IpIp)
compared to APD generated is more
compared to PIN,
Ip=qNθ,
Ip=qNθ.M
q=electron charge,

PROFESSOR
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
q=electroncharge,
Nθ=carrier number
Nθ=carrier number,
M=multiplication factor
3 ResponsivelyofPINislimited. Responsively of APD can
havemuch largervalues.
4 Theyexhibitlowernoiselevels. They exhibit higher
noise levels as
compared to PIN due to
impact ionization and
photocurrent
multiplication. 116
5 ResponsetimeofPINishalf that of APD. Response time of APD is
almost double thatof
 V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
117

PROFESSOR
PHOTO DETECTOR MATERIALS
V.SUDHA RANI ME,MIE., ASSOCIATE
118

PROFESSOR