Optical Sources

Considered to be the active component in an Optical Fiber

Communication system.
Its fundamental function is to convert electrical energy in the
form of a current into optical energy (light) in an efficient
manner which allows the light output to be effectively
launched or coupled into the optical fiber.
Major requirements of an Optical Source
The light output should be highly directionalOptical output should be
linearly proportional to the electrical input.Should emit light at
wavelengths where the fiber has low loss and low dispersion and
where the detectors are efficient.Preferably capable of simple
modulation over a wide bandwidth extending from audio
frequencies
Must to beyondoptical
couple sufficient the gigahertz
power torange
overcome attenuation in the
fiber plus additional connector losses and leave adequate power to
drive the detector.
Should have a very narrow spectral bandwidth (line width) in order to
minimize dispersion in the fiber.
Must be capable of maintaining a stable optical output which is
largely unaffected by changes in ambient conditions (eg.
temperature).It is essential that the source is comparatively cheap
 Optical source types
Two types of optical light sources are available:
Monochromatic incoherent sources (Light Emitting Diodes,
LEDs)
Monochromatic coherent sources (LASERs).
Introduction to LEDs & LASERs
The principal light sources used for fiber optic communication
applications are Hetero junction-structured semiconductor diodes:
LASER (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation)
diodes (also referred to as injection laser diodes or ILDs).
Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs).A heterojunction consists of two
adjoining semiconductor materials with different band-gap
energies.
LEDs & LASER diodes …
These devices are suitable for fiber optic transmission systems
because they have adequate power output for a wide range of
applications.Their optical power output can be directly
modulated by varying the input current to the device. They have
high efficiency.Their dimensional characteristics are compatible
with those of optical fibers
 Major difference between LEDs & LASER
• Diodes
The output from a LASER diode is coherent.

• In a coherent source, the optical energy is produced in an

optical resonant cavity.

• The optical energy released from this cavity has spatial and
temporal coherence which means it is highly monochromatic
and the output beam is very directional.

• The output from an LED is incoherent

• In an incoherent source, no optical cavity exists for wavelength

selectivity.

• The output radiation has a broad spectral width, since the

emitted photon energies range over the energy distribution of
the recombining electrons and holes.

• In addition, The incoherent optical energy is emitted into a

hemisphere and thus has a large beam divergence.
 Absorption & Emission of Radiation

The interaction of light with matter takes place in discrete packets of energy
or quanta, called photons.
Based on Quantum theory, Atoms exists only in certain discrete energy
states such that the absorption and emission of light causes them to make
transition from one energy state to another.The frequency of the
absorbed or emitted radiation f is related to the difference in energy E
between the higher energy state E2 and the lower energy state E1 by the
expression, E = E2 – E1 = hf Where, h = 6.626 x 10-34 J s is Planck’s
constant.
 Absorption
When a photon with energy (E2-E1) is incident on the atom it may be
exited into the higher energy state E2 through absorption of the
photon.This process is referred to as stimulated absorption.
Spontaneous & Stimulated Emission
When the atom is initially in the higher energy state E2, it can make a
transition to the lower energy state E1 providing the emission of a
photon at a frequency corresponding to difference in the
energy.This emission process can occur in two ways:
By spontaneous emission in which the atom returns to the lower
energy state in an entirely random manner.
By stimulated emission when a photon having an energy equal to
the energy difference between the two states (E2 – E1)
interacts with the atom in the upper energy state causing it to
return to the lower state with the creation of a second photon.
The random nature of the spontaneous emission process where the
light is emitted by electronic transitions from a large number of
atoms gives incoherent radiation.
Spontaneous emission process in semiconductors provides the
basic mechanism for light generation within the LED.
LASER gets its special properties as an optical source by stimulated
 Stimulated Emission
• The photon produced by stimulated emission is
generally of an identical energy to the one which
caused it and hence the light associated with them is of
same frequency.

• Also, the light associated with the stimulating and

stimulated photon is in phase and has the same
polarization.

• Therefore, in contrast to spontaneous emission,

coherent radiation is obtained.

• This means that when an atom is stimulated to emit

light energy by an incident wave, the liberated energy
can add to the wave in a constructive manner,
providing amplification.
 Einstein Relations

• Considering the atomic system to be in thermal equilibrium

such that the rate of the upward transitions must equal the rate
of the downward transitions..
• The populations of the two energy levels of such a system are
described by Boltzmann statistics,,,
 Absorption:As the density of atoms in the lower or ground energy state
E1 is N1, the rate of upward transition or absorption is proportional to
both N1 and spectral density ρf of the radiation energy at the transition
frequency f..The upward transition rate R12 (level 1 to level 2) written as
R12= N1 ρf B12 ------(2 B12 Einstein coefficient of absorption

Spontaneous emission:By contrast atoms in the higher or excited energy state can
undergo electron transitions from level 2 to level 1 either spontaneously or through
stimulation by radiation field..Spontaneous emission the average time an electron exists
in the excited state before a transition occurs is known as Spontaneous lifetime τ21...If
the density of atoms within system with energy E2, is N2 then the Spontaneous
emission rate is given by the product of N2 and 1/τ21...
 This may be written as N2A21, where A21  Einstein coefficient of
spontaneous emission ..
Stimulated Emission - The rate of stimulated downward transition of an
electron from level 2 to level 1 to the rate of stimulated emission..The rate
of stimulated emission is given by, N2ρfB12 where B21 Einstein
coefficient of stimulated emission...The total transition rate from level 2 to
level 1 R21, is sum of the spontaneous and Stimulated contributions..
R21= N2A21+ N2ρfB12 ---(3)

For a system in thermal equilibrium , the upward and downward transition

rates must be equal and therefore R12=R21 or
N1ρfB12= N2A21+N2ρfB12---(4) (continue to equation)
 Population Inversion
Under the condition of thermal equilibrium, the lower energy level E1 of the two

level atomic system contains more atoms than the upper energy level E2.This
situation which is normal for structures at room temperature.To achieve
optical amplification, it is necessary to create a non equilibrium distribution
of atoms such that the population of the upper energy level is greater than that
of the lower energy level (N2>N1)..This condition is known as population
inversion.
 Population Inversion …
In order to achieve population inversion, it is necessary to excite
atoms into the upper energy level E2 and hence obtain a non
equilibrium distribution.
This process is achieved using an external energy source and is
referred to as ‘pumping’.A common method used for pumping
involves the application of intense radiation (e.g. from an optical
flash tube or high frequency radio field).In semiconductor lasers,
population inversion is accomplished by injecting electrons into
the material at the device contacts to fill the lower energy states
of the conduction band.
 Optical Feedback and Laser Oscillation
Light amplification in the laser occurs when a photon colliding with an
atom in the excited energy state causes the stimulated emission
of a second photon and then both these photons release two
more.Continuation of these process creates avalanche
multiplication, and when the electromagnetic waves associated
with these photons are in phase, amplified coherent emission is
obtained.To achieve this laser action it is necessary to contain
photons
This within theby
is accomplished laser medium
placing and maintain
or forming the conditions
mirrors (plane or curved) for
at
either end of the amplifying medium.
coherence.
The optical cavity formed is more analogous to an oscillator than an
amplifier as it provides positive feedback of the photons by reflection at
the mirrors at either end of the cavity.
 Optical Feedback and Laser Oscillation…
Hence the optical signal is fed back many times whilst receiving
amplification of the signal from a single pass through the
medium.The structure therefore acts as Fabry-Perot Resonator.
Fabry-Perot (named after Charles Fabry and Alfred Perot.)
resonator is a pair of partially reflective glass optical flats spaced
millimeters to centimeters apart, with the reflective surfaces
facing each other.After multiple passes through the medium, the
net gain is very large.If the mirror is made partially transmitting,
useful radiation may escape from the cavity.
A stable output is obtained at saturation when the optical gain is
exactly matched by the losses incurred in the amplifying
medium.The major losses result from factors such as absorption
and scattering in the amplifying medium..Oscillations occur in the
laser cavity over a small range of frequencies where the cavity
gain is sufficient to overcome the above losses..
The device is not a perfectly monochromatic source but emits over a
narrow spectral band..
The central frequency of this spectral band is determined by the mean
energy level difference of the stimulated emission transition..Other
oscillation frequencies within the spectral band result from frequency
variations due to the thermal motion of atoms within the amplifying
medium and by atomic collisions...The amplification within the laser
medium results in a broadened laser transition or gain curve over a
finite spectral width as shown in fig..

Since the structure forms a resonant cavity, when sufficient

population inversion exists in the amplifying medium the radiation
builds up and becomes established as standing waves between
the mirrors.These standing waves exists only at frequencies for
which the distance between the mirrors is an integral number of
half wavelength.The optical frequencies at which constructive
interference occurs are the resonant frequencies of the cavity
 Optical Feedback and Laser Oscillation…
• When the optical spacing between the mirrors
is L the resonance condition along the axis of
the cavity is:

• Where,
• λ is the emission wavelength
• n is the refractive index of the amplifying medium
• q is an integer.

• In most types of lasers the typical dimensions

are approximately 250 µm – 500 µm long, 5-
15µm wide and 0.1 to 0.2 µm thick.

• These dimensions are referred to as the

longitudinal, lateral and transverse dimensions
 LEDLED
Fiber transmission applications, Structures
must have a high radiance output, fast
emission response time and high quantum efficiency...Its radiance (or
brightness) is a measure, in watts, of the optical power radiated into a unit
solid angle per unit area of the emitting surface..High radiances are
necessary to couple sufficiently high optical power levels into a fiber..
Double-hetero structure &Energy band Diagram

Hetero junction structure are used to achieve carrier and optical confinement,.. A hetero
junction consists of two adjoining semiconductor materials with different band-gap
energies..Hetero junction are also known as Double-hetero structure device because of
two different alloy layers on each side of the active region...The band gap energy
difference of adjacent layers confine the charge carriers (fig b) and refractive indices of
adjoining layers confine the optical field to the central active layer(fig c)
• So high efficiency and high radiance is obtained due to this
dual confinement...
• The electron-hole recombination occurs only in active
InGaAsP layer..
• A double hetero junction structure will confine both holes and
electrons to a narrow active layer..
• Under forward bias, there will be a large number of carriers
injected into active region where they are efficiently confined..
Types of LED structures:
 Surface Emitters
 Edge Emitters
 Surface Emitting LED

In surface emitter LEDs, the plane of the active light-emitting region is oriented
perpendicularly to the axis of the fiber.These structure have a low thermal
impedance in the active region allowing high current densities and giving high
radiance emission into the optical fiber..In this configuration, a well is etched
through the substrate (GaAs) to avoid the heavy absorption of the emitted
radiation and fiber is then connected to accept the emitted light.
The circular active area in practical surface emitters is nominally 50µm in diameter
and up to 2.5µm thick.The emission pattern is isotropic with a 120° half-power
beam width.The isotropic pattern from a surface emitter is called a Lambertian
Pattern.In this pattern , the source is equally bright when viewed from any
direction..This radiation pattern decides the coupling efficiency of LED..

In this pattern, the source is equally bright when viewed from any direction, but the
power diminishes as cosθ, where θ is the angle between the viewing direction
and the normal to the surface.Thus, the power is down to 50% of its peak when
θ = 60°, so that the total half-power beam width is 120°.
They allow more power to be coupled into the optical fiber, but they are also more
difficult and expensive to manufacture..
The power coupled Pc into a multimode step-index fiber may be estimated from the
relationship,Pc= π(1-r)A.Rd(NA)²
Where, rFresnel reflection coefficient at the fiber surface. A smaller of the fiber core cross
section.... Rd radiance of the source
 Edge-Emitting LED

The edge-emitter LEDs emit a more directional light pattern than the surface emitting LED..In
order to reduce the losses caused by absorption in the active layer and to make the beam
more directional , the light is collected from the edge of the LED..Such a device is known
as edge emitting LED..The edge LED has transparent guiding layers with very thin active
layer of 50 to 100µm…
The guiding layers both have a refractive index which is lower
than that of the active region but higher than the index of the
surrounding material.The surrounding guiding layers are like
core and cladding of the fiber..To match the typical fiber-core
diameters (50µm-100µm), the contact stripes for the edge
emitter are 50µm-70µm wide.In the plane parallel to the
junction, where there is no waveguide effect, the emitted beam
is lambertian (varying as cosθ) with a half-power beam width
of θll = 120°(horizontal).In the plane perpendicular to the
junction, the half-power beam width θ⊥has been made as
small as 25-35° by a proper choice of the waveguide
thickness.
 LED Characteristics

• Emission spectrum of LED

• Quantum Efficiency and LED power

• Modulation of an LED
 Emission spectrum of LED or Light Source
Material
For operation in the 800-to-900-nm spectrum, the principal material used is Ga 1-
xAlxAs.The ratio x of the aluminum arsenide to gallium arsenide determines the
band gap of the alloy and, correspondingly, the wavelength of the peak emitted
radiation.The value of x for the active-area material is usually chosen to give
an emission wavelength of 800-850nm.
 Comparison of surface & Edge emitter LED
Edge emitters LED:
Edge emitters are more complex and expensive devices.. But offer high output power
levels and high speed performance. The output power is high because the emitting
spot is very small, typically 30-50 µm, allowing good coupling efficiency to
similarly sized optical fibers. Edge emitters also have relatively narrow emission
spectra.

Surface emitters LED:

Surface emitters have a comparatively simple structure, are relatively inexpensive, offer low-
to-moderate output power levels, and are capable of low-to-moderate operating speeds. The
total LED chip optical output power is as high or higher than the edge-emitting LED, but the
emitting area is large, causing poor coupling efficiency to the optical fiber.
 Quantum Efficiency and LED power
In general excess carrier decays exponentially with time according to the relation, n=n0e^-t/τ---------
(1)where, n0initial injected excess electron density,, τcarrier lifetimeThe excess density of
electron n and holes p is equal since the injected carriers are created and recombined in pairs..

The total rate at which carriers are generated is the sum of the externally supplied and
the thermally generated rates..The externally supplied rate is given by J/qd, where J is
current density in A/cm², q is the electron charge and d is the thickness of the
recombination region.The thermal rate is given by n/τ The rate equation for carrier
recombination in LED can be written as,dn/dt= J/qd-n/τ-------(2)
The equilibrium condition is found by setting equ(2) equal to zero, n=Jτ/qd-------(3)
Internal quantum efficiency:The internal quantum efficiency in the active region is
the fraction of the electron-hole pairs that recombine radiatively..If the radiative
recombination rate is Rr and nonradiative recombination rate is Rnr..Internal quantum
efficiency ηint is the ratio of the radiative recombination rate to the total recombination
For exponential decay of excess carriers, radiative recombination lifetime τr=n/Rr and nonradiative recombination
lifetime τnr=n/Rnr..The internal quantum efficiency can be expressed as,ηint=1/1+τr/τnr = τ/τr---(5)Where,
Bulk recombination lifetime τ is 1/τ=1/τr+1/τnr---(6)If the current injected into the LED is I, then the total
number of recombination per second is

Rr+Rnr=I/q--------(7)Substituting equ(7) into equ(4)Rr=ηint.I/q

Note that Rr is the total number of photons generated per second and each photon has
an energy hv, then the optical power generated internally to LED
Pint=ηint.I/q.hv=ηint.hcI/qλ (v=c/λ)External quantum efficiency:The ratio of
the photons emitted from the LED to the number of internally generated photons.To
find the external quantum efficiency , we need to take into account reflection effects at
the surface of the LED..The external quantum efficiency can be calculated from the
expression,
The factors depends on the incidence angle (Φ), but simplicity we can use the
expression for normal incidence T(0) = 4n1n2/(n1+n2)^2Assuming outside
medium air and letting n1=n, we have T(0)= 4n/(n+1)^2....The external
quantum efficiency is then approximated given by, ηext=1/n(n+1)² The optical
power emitted externally from the LED is,P=ηext.Pint=Pint/n(n+1)²
 Modulation of an LED
The response time or frequency response of an optical source
dictates how fast an electrical input drive signal can vary the light
output level.
The following three factors largely determine the response time:The
doping level in the active region,
The injected carrier lifetime, τi in the recombination region,And
If the drive current capacitance
the parasitic is modulatedofatthe
a frequency
LED. ω, the optical output
power of the device will vary as:
Where,
• P0 is the power emitted at
zero modulation frequency.
 Modulation of an LED …

The modulation bandwidth of an LED can be defined in either

electrical or optical terms.Normally, electrical terms are used since
the bandwidth is actually determined via the associated electrical
circuitry.Thus, the modulation bandwidth is defined as the point
where the electrical signal power, designated by p(ω), has
dropped to half its constant value resulting from the modulated
portion of the electrical signal.This is the electrical 3-dB point; that
is, the frequency at which the output electrical power is reduced
by 3 dB
Since an with respect
optical to exhibits
source the inputaelectrical power.
linear relationship between light
power and current, currents rather than voltages (which are
used in electrical systems) are compared in optical systems.
Thus, since p(ω) = I2(ω)/R, the ratio of the output electrical power
at the frequency ω to the power at zero modulation is

Where,
I(ω) is the electrical current in
the detection circuitry.
 Modulation of an LED …
The electrical 3-dB point occurs at that frequency point where the
detected electrical power p(ω) = p(0)/2.This happens when

Sometimes, the modulation bandwidth of an LED is given in terms of

the 3-dB bandwidth of the modulated optical power p(ω); It is
specified at the frequency where p(ω) = p(0)/2.In this case, the
3-dB bandwidth is determined from the ratio of the optical power
at frequency ω to the unmodulated value of the optical
power.Since the detected current is directly proportional to the
optical power, the ratio is

The optical 3-dB point occurs at that frequency where the ratio of
the currents is equal to ½.
This gives an inflated value of the modulation bandwidth, which
corresponds to an electrical power attenuation of 6 dB.
 Laser Diode
Laser diodes ,Typically have response times less than 1 ns, Can
have Spectral widths of 2 nm or less,
The capable of coupling several tens of milliwatts of useful
luminescent power into optical fibers with small cores and
small mode-field diameters.
Virtually all laser diodes in use are multilayered heterojunction
devices.The construction of Laser diodes are more complicated,
mainly because of the additional requirement of current
confinement in a small lasing cavity.
Fabry-Perot Type Laser Diode Structure
Distributed-Feedback (DFB) Laser Diode structure
bry-Perot Type Laser Diode Structure
The cavity is approximately 250-500µm long, 5-15µm wide and 0.1-0.2µm thick.
These dimensions commonly are referred to as the longitudinal, lateral and transverse
dimensions of the cavity respectively.
Two flat, partially reflecting mirrors are directed toward each other to
enclose the Fabry-Perot resonator cavity.
The mirror facets are constructed by making two parallel clefts (splits
/ indentations) along natural cleavage planes of the
semiconductor crystal.The purpose of the mirrors is to establish a
strong optical feedback in the longitudinal direction.The sides of
the cavity are simply formed by roughing the edges of the device
to reduce unwanted emissions in the lateral directions.
As the light reflects back and forth within the Fabry-Perot cavity, the electric field
fields of the light interfere on successive round trips.The optical frequencies at which
constructive interference occurs are the resonant frequencies of the cavity.
Consequently, spontaneously emitted photons that have wavelength at these
resonant frequencies reinforce themselves after multiple trips through the cavity.So
that their optical field becomes very strong.The resonant wavelength are called the
“longitudinal modes” of the cavity.
 Distributed-Feedback (DFB) Laser Diode structure

In this structure, the cleaved facets are not required for optical
feedback.The fabrication of this device is similar to the Fabry-Perot
types, except that the lasing action is obtained from Bragg
reflectors (gratings) or periodic variations of the refractive index
(called distributed-feedback corrugations), which are incorporated
into the multilayer structure along the length of the diode.The
frequency selective reflector is a corrugated grating which is a
passive waveguide layer adjacent to the active region. The optical
wave propagates parallel to this grating.
Distributed-Feedback (DFB) Laser Diode structure…
The operation of these device is based on distributed Bragg phase-
grating reflector.The phase grating is essentially a region of
periodically varying refractive index that causes two counter
propagating travelling waves to couple.The distributed resonators
fabricated into the laser structure give an integrated wavelength
selectivity.

The coupling is at a maximum for wavelengths close to the Bragg

wavelength λB, which is related to the period of corrugation by
Where,
• ne is the refractive index of the mode
• k is the order of the grating
First order gratings (k = 1) provide the strongest coupling, but
sometimes second order gratings are used since large corrugation
period makes fabrication easier.
 Modulation of laser diode
The process of putting information onto a light wave is called “Modulation”. For
data rates of less than approximately 10Gb/s (typically 2.5Gb/s), the process of
imposing information on a laser-emitted light stream can be realized by direct
modulationFor high data rates one needs to use a device called an external
modulator..Temporally modify a steady optical power level emitted by the laser.
The basic limitation on the direct modulation rate of laser diodes depends on the
spontaneous and stimulated emission carrier lifetimes and on the photon
lifetime.Spontaneous life time(τsp) is a function of the semiconductor band structure
and carrier concentration.At room temperature this life time is about 1 ns in Ga-As
based materials for dopant concentration on the order of 10^19 cm^-3…..
• The stimulated carrier lifetime (τst) depends on the optical
density in the lasing cavity and order of 10 ps..
• The photon life time (τph) is the average time that the photon
resides in the lasing cavity before being lost either by
absorption or by emission.
• In a Fabry-Perot cavity, photon life time is

τ^-1ph = c/n.gth
• gth=50cm^-1 and refractive index in the lasing material of
n=3.5 and photon life time τph = 2 ps….
When using a directly modulated laser diode for high speed transmission
systems..The modulation frequency can be no larger than the frequency of
the relaxation oscillations of the laser field..

The relaxation oscillation depends on both the spontaneous life time and photon
life time. Theoretically, assuming a linear dependence of the optical gain on
carrier density, relaxation oscillation occurs approximately at,
 Laser Line width
In non-semiconductor lasers, for example , in solid state lasers, it can be shown that
noise arising from spontaneous emission effects results in a finite spectral width or
line width Δv for the lasing output.In semiconductor material both the optical gain
and refractive index depend on the actual carrier density in the medium.The
relationship leads to index-gain coupling mechanism: that is, gives in an interaction
between phase noise and light intensity…
The theoretically calculated as,
Δv=Rsp/4ΠI.(1+α^2)-----(1)
Where, I average number of photon in the lasing cavity
Rsp spontaneous emission rate
αline width enhancement factor
Semiconductor lasers the line width is increased by a factor(1+α^2)..The line width
expression in eq(1)can be rewritten in terms of the optical output power Pout as,
Δv= -------------(2)The spectral width of a laser also can increase
significantly when direct modulation is used to vary the light output level. This line
broadening is referred to as a “Chirping effect”
 Threshold current temperature dependence
In general terms the threshold current tends to increase with temperature, the
temperature dependence of the threshold density Jth being approximately
exponential of most common structures.
Jth α exp T/T0 Where, T absolute temperatu T0 threshold
temperature coefficient
For AlGaAs devices, T0 is usually in the range 120 to 190K, whereas for INGaAsP
devices it is between 40 and 75k..The increase in threshold current with temperature
for AlGaAs devices can be accounted for with reasonable accuracy by consideration
of the increasing energy spread of electrons and holes injected into the conduction
and valence bands..In GaAsP material system may cause its higher temperature
sensitivity…
 Phase noise
The source of noise are,a) Phase or frequency noiseb) Instabilities in operation such as
links in the light output against current characteristicsc) Reflection of light back into
the deviced) Mode partition noise ..It is possible to reduce , if not remove (b), ©
and (d) by using mode stabilized device and optical isolators..
Phase noise:
It is intrinsic property of all laser typesIt result from the discrete and random
spontaneous or stimulated transitions which cause intensity fluctuations in the optical
emission and are an inevitable aspect of laser operation.
Phase noise:

It is intrinsic property of all laser typesIt result from the discrete

and random spontaneous or stimulated transitions which cause
intensity fluctuations in the optical emission and are an
inevitable aspect of laser operation.
 Optical Detector
Detectors perform the opposite function of light emitters.

They convert optical signals back into electrical impulses that are used by the receiving
end of the fiber optic data, video, or audio link. The most common detector is the
semiconductor photodiode, which produces current in response to incident light.
 pin Photodetector

The high electric field present in the depletion region causes photo-generated carriers to
Separate and be collected across the reverse –biased junction. This give rise to a current
Flow in an external circuit, known as photocurrent.
 pin energy-band diagram

Cut off wavelength:

hc 1.24 Cut off wavelength depends on the

c   μm band gap energy
E g E g (eV )
 Photocurrent
• Optical power absorbed,P(x) in the depletion region can be written in terms
of incident optical power, P0 :

  s ( ) x
P( x)  P0 (1  e ) [6-1]

• Absorption coefficient  s ( ) strongly depends on wavelength. The upper

wavelength cutoff for any semiconductor can be determined by its energy
gap as follows:
1.24
 c ( m )  [6-2]
E g (eV)
• Taking entrance face reflectivity into consideration, the absorbed power in
the width of depletion region, w, becomes:

(1  R f ) P( w)  P0 (1  e   s (  ) w )(1  R f )
 Avalanche Photodiode (APD)
APDs internally multiply the
primary photocurrent before it
enters to following circuitry.
In order to carrier multiplication
take place, the photogenerated
carriers must traverse along a
high field region. In this region,
photogenerated electrons and
holes gain enough energy to
ionize bound electrons in VB
upon colliding with them. This
multiplication is known as Optical radiation
impact ionization. The newly
created carriers in the presence of Reach-Through APD structure (RAPD)
high electric field result in more showing the electric fields in depletion
ionization called avalanche region and multiplication region.
effect.
 Quantum Efficiency
• The quantum efficiency η is the number of the
electron–hole carrier pairs generated per incident–
absorbed photon of energy hν and is given by

Ip is the photocurrent generated by a steady-state

optical power Pin incident on the photodetector.