Introduction to

Discrete
Structures

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 What is Discrete Structure?

 Discrete Objects
Separated from each other (Opposite of

continuous)
 e.g., integers, people, house,
 Continuous objects: e.g., real number
 Discrete Structures
 The abstract mathematical structures used to
represent
 discrete objects and relationships between

the objects
 e.g. sets, relations, graphs

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 Why do we study Discrete Structures?

 Information is stored and manipulated by

computers in a discrete fashion. 0101101…
 As a student in computer science major, you
need to know the basic language and
conceptual foundation for all of the computer
science, i.e., Discrete Structures!
 Discrete structure concepts are also widely
used throughout math, science, engineering,
economics, biology, etc., …
 Get training for rational thought!

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 Uses of Discrete Structures in
Computer Science
 Networking
 Database
 Image Processing
 Programming Languages
 Compilers & Interpreters
 Software Engineering
 Artificial Intelligence
 Computer Architecture
 Operating Systems
 Security & Cryptography
 Advanced Algorithms & Data Structures
 Graphics & Animation
 …… 4
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 Tentative Syllabus & Text Book

 Logic Theory
 Fundamental Structures
 Proof Techniques
 Basics of Counting
 Graph Theory
 Discrete Probability

Text Books
1. Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications, 7th
edition by Kenneth H. Rosen, McGraw Hill, 2007.

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 Logic Theory

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 Propositional Logic
 Proposition: A proposition is a declarative
statement ( a statement that declares a fact) that
is either TRUE or FALSE, but not both.
 The area of logic that deals with propositions is
called propositional logic.

Propositions Not Propositions

1. Riyadh is the capital 1. How many students
of Saudi Arabia in this class?
2. Every cow has 4 2. Bring me coffee!
legs.
3. 3 + 2 = 32 3. X + 2 = 3
4. 4 + 3 = 7
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4. Y + Z = X 7
 Propositional Logic - Applications
 We are using propositional logic as a foundation
for formal proofs.
 Propositional logic is also the key to writing good
code…you can’t do any kind of conditional (if)
statement without understanding the condition
you’re testing.
 All the logical connectives that we are going to
discuss are also found in hardware and are
called “gates.”

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 Propositional Logic - Negation
 We use letters to denote propositional variables
 Truth value of true proposition is denoted by T
 Truth value of false proposition is denoted by F
 Negation: Suppose p is a proposition. The
negation of p is written p and has meaning: “It
is not the case that p.”
 The proposition p is read “NOT p”
 Example: p: “Today is Friday”
p: “Today is NOT Friday”
 Truth table for negation: p p
Notice that p is a F T
proposition! T F
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 Propositional Logic - Conjunction

 Conjunction corresponds to English “and.”

 Conjunction: Let p and q be two propositions. The
conjunction of p and q, denoted by p  q, is the
proposition “p and q”. The p  q is true when both p
and q are true, otherwise false.
 Example: p: “Today is Friday”
q: “It is raining today”
p  q: “Today is Friday and it is raining today”
 Truth table for conjunction:
p q pq
F F F
F T F
T F F
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T T T 10
 Propositional Logic - Disjunction

 Disjunction corresponds to English “or.”

 Disjunction: Let p and q be two propositions. The
disjunction of p OR q, denoted by p  q, is the
proposition “p or q”. The p  q is false when both
p and q are false, otherwise true.
 Example: p: “Today is Friday”
q: “It is raining today”
p  q: “Today is Friday or it is raining today”
 Truth table for disjunction:
p q pq
F F F
F T T
T F T
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T T T 11
 Propositional Logic – Exclusive Or

 Exclusive Or: Let p and q be two propositions.

The exclusive or of p and q, denoted by p ⊕ q, is
the proposition that is true when exactly one of
p and q is true, otherwise false.
 Truth table for Exclusive Or:
p q p⊕q
F F F
F T T
T F T
T T F

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 Propositional Logic – Conditional
Statement
 It corresponds to English “if p then q” or “p implies q.”
 Conditional: Let p and q be two propositions. The
conditional statement (implication) p  q is the
proposition “if p, then q”. The conditional statement
p  q is false when p is true and q is false, otherwise
true.
 Example: If it is raining, then it is cloudy.
 If I am elected, then I will lower taxes.
 If you get 100% in the final, then you will get Grade
A+.
 Truth table for implication: p q pq
F F T
F T T
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T F F 13

T T T
 Propositional Logic - Special
Definitions
 Converse: q  p is converse of p  q.
 Ex. p  q: “If it is noon, then I am hungry.”
q  p: “If I am hungry, then it is noon.”
 Contrapositive: q  p is contapositive of p  q.
 Ex. p  q: “If it is noon, then I am hungry.”
q  p: “If I am not hungry, then it is not
noon.”
 Inverse: p  q is inverse of p  q.
 Ex. p  q: “If it is noon, then I am hungry.”
p  q: “If it is not noon, then I am not
hungry.”
p  q has same truth values as q 
p
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 Propositional Logic – Biconditional
Statement
 It corresponds to English “p if and only if q”.
 Biconditional: Let p and q be two propositions.
The biconditional statement (bi-implication) p ↔ q
is the proposition “p if and only if q”. The
biconditional statement p ↔ q is true when p and
q have the same truth values, otherwise false.
 p ↔ q has same truth value as (p q)  (q  p).
 Example: p: “You can take the flight”
q : “You buy a ticket”
p q p↔q
p↔q : “You can take the
F F T
flight if and only if
F T F
you buy a ticket”
T F F
T T T 15
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 Propositional Logic – Precedence
 Precedence of Logical Operators:
Precedenc
Operator
e
¬ 1
p p p  p p  p
Λ 2
F T T F
ν 3
T F T F
→ 4
 A compound proposition that is: ↔ 5
(1) always true is called a tautology
(2) always false is called a contradiction
(3) neither a tautology nor a contradiction is called
contingency or satisfiable.

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 Propositional Logic – Compound
Propositions
 Construct truth table for (p  q) → (p  q).

p q q p  q p  q (p  q) → (p  q)
F F T T F F
T F T T F F
F T F F F T
T T F T T T

 Q3: Construct truth table for

 (p  q) ↔ (p  q).
 (p ⊕ q) → (p ⊕ q).

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 Propositional Equivalences – Logical
Equivalences
 Equivalence: The compound propositions p and q
are logically equivalent if p↔q is a tautology. In
other words, p and q are logically equivalent if
their truth tables are the same. We write p  q.
 Example: (p  q)  p  q.
 Truth tables for (p  q) and p  q :

p q p  q (p  q) p q p  q
F F F T T T T
T F T F F T F
F T T F T F F
T T T F F F F
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 Propositional Equivalences – Logical
Equivalences
 Example: p  q  p  q.
 Truth tables for p  q and p  q:

p p p  q
p q
q
F F T T T
T F F F F
F T T T T
T T T F T
 Q4: Show that p  (q  r)  (p  q)  (p  r)

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 Propositional Equivalence – Prove
the following Logical Equivalences
Equivalence Name
p Λ T  p and p ν F  p Identity laws
p ν T  T and p Λ F  F Domination laws
p ν p  p and p Λ p  p Idempotent laws
Double negation
¬( ¬ p)  p
law
Commutative
p ν q  q ν p and p Λ q  q Λ p
laws
(p ν q) ν r  p ν (q ν r) and (p Λ q) Λ r  p Λ
Associative laws
(q Λ r)
p  (q  r)  (p  q)  (p  r)
Distributive laws
p  (q  r)  (p  q)  (p  r)
¬(p ν q)  ¬p Λ ¬q and ¬(p Λ q)  ¬p ν ¬q De Morgan’s laws
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p  (p  q)  p and p  (p  q)  p Absorption laws
 Propositional Equivalence – Prove
the following Logical Equivalences

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 Propositional Logic – Translating
English Sentences
 The sentence “The automated reply cannot be
sent when the file system is full” can be
translated as
q → p
where p: “The automated reply can be sent ”
q: “The file system is full”
 The sentence “You cannot drive a car if you are
under 4 feet tall unless you are older than 16
years old” can be translated as
(q r) → p
where p: “You can drive a car ”
q: “You are under 4 feet tall ”
r: “You are older than 16 years old”
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 Propositional Logic – Translating
English Sentences
 The sentence “You can access the Internet from
campus only if you are a computer science major or
you are not a freshman” can be translated as
p → (q  r)
where p: “You can access the Internet from campus”
q: “You are a computer science major”
r: “You are a freshman”
 Q5: Translate the following sentences into logical
expressions:
 “Access is granted whenever the user has paid the
subscription fee and enters a valid password”
 “If the user has not entered a valid password but
has paid the subscription fee, then access is
granted”

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 Propositional Equivalences – Logic
and Bit Operations
 Bit: A bit is a symbol with two possible values,
namely, 0 (zero) and 1 (one).
 A bit can be used to represent a truth value as 1
for T and 0 for F
 Bit string: A bit string is a sequence of bits. The
length of the string is number of bits in the string.
 Example: 10101001 is a bit string of length eight
 We define the bitwise OR, AND, and XOR of two
strings of same length to be the strings that have
as their bits the OR, AND, and XOR of the
corresponding bits in the two strings, respectively.
 We use the symbols , , and ⊕ to represent
bitwise OR, AND, and XOR, respectively.
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 Propositional Equivalences – Logic
and Bit Operations
 Truth table for bitwise OR, AND, and XOR:
xy xy x⊕
x y
y
0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 0

 Q6: Find bitwise OR, AND, and XOR of the bit

strings
 01 0011 0100 and 10 1001 0101
 00 1011 1010 and 11 1010 0101
 11 0101 0110 and 10 1101 0010
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 Predicates and Quantifiers -
Predicates
 The statements “x > 3”, “x = y + 3”, and
“computer x is functioning properly” are not
propositions
 This section discusses how proposition can be
produced from such statements
 The statement “x > 3” has two parts –
 the variables x, the subject of the statement
 is greater than 3, the predicate, the property that
the subject of the statement can have
 We denote P(x) = “x > 3”, where P denotes the
predicate “is greater than 3” and x is the variable
 Once we assign a value to x, it becomes proposition
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 Predicates and Quantifiers -
Predicates
 Def: A predicate, or propositional function, is a
function that takes some variable(s) as arguments
and returns True or False.
 Example: Let P(x) = “x > 3”, what are the truth
values of P(2) and P(4)?
 Sol: P(2) = “2 > 3” is false and P(4) = “4 > 3” is true
 Example: Let Q(x, y) = “x = y + 3”, what are the
truth values of Q(1, 2) and Q(3, 0)?
 Sol: Q(1,2)= “1=2+3” is false, Q(3,0)= “3=0+3” is
true
 Def: A statement of the form P(x1, x2, …., xn) is the
value of the propositional function P at the n-tuple
(x1, x2, …., xn), and P is called n-ary predicate
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 Predicates and Quantifiers-
Predicates
 Example: Consider the statement
if x > 0 then x := x + 1.
Here P(x) = “x > 0”. If P(x) is true for the value
of x, then the assignment statement x := x + 1
is executed, x is increased by 1. If P(x) is false
for the value of x, then the assignment
statement is not executed, x remains same
 The statements that describe valid input are
known as preconditions, and the conditions that
the output should satisfy when it has run are
known as postconditions
 Q7: Let R(x, y, z) = “x + y = z”, what are the
truth values of R(1, 2, 3) and R(0, 0, 1)?
12/06/24 28
 Predicates and Quantifiers -
Quantifiers
 Another way of changing a predicate into a
proposition is called quantification
 In English, the words all, some, many, none, and
few are used in quantifications
 Two types of quantifications:
 Universal quantifications – a predicate is true
for every element under consideration
 Existential quantifications – there is one or
more element under consideration for which
predicate is true
 The area of logic that deals with predicates and
quantifiers is called predicate calculus
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 Predicates and Quantifiers –
Universal Quantifiers
 Def: The universal quantification of P(x) is the
statement “P(x) for all values of x in the domain”.
The notation x P(x) denotes the universal
quantification of P(x). Here  is called universal
quantifier. An element for which P(x) is false is
called a counterexample of x P(x).
 Quantifiers:

Statement When True? When False?

x P(x) P(x) is true for every There is an x for
x which P(x) is false
 x P(x) P(x) is false for
There is an x for every x
12/06/24 which P(x) is true 30
 Predicates and Quantifiers –
Universal Quantifiers
 Example: Let P(x) = “x+1 > x”. What is the truth
value of the quantification x P(x), where the
domain consists of all real numbers?
 Sol: Because P(x) is true for all real numbers x,
the quantification x P(x) is true.
 Example: Let Q(x) = “x < 2”. What is the truth
value of the quantification x Q(x), where the
domain consists of all real numbers?
 Sol: Because Q(x) is not true for every real
number x, because, for instance, Q(3) is false.
That is, x=3 is a counterexample for the
statement x Q(x).
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 Predicates and Quantifiers –
Universal Quantifiers
 Q8: Let P(x) = “x2 > 0”. What is the truth value
of the quantification x P(x), where the domain
consists of all real numbers?
 Q9: Let Q(x) = “x2 < 10”. What is the truth value
of the quantification x Q(x), where the domain
consists of positive integers less than 4?
 Q10: Let R(x) = “x2 ≥ x”. What is the truth value
of the quantification x R(x), where the domain
consists of all real numbers? What is the truth
value of the quantification if the domain consists
of all integers?

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 Predicates and Quantifiers –
Existential Quantifiers
 Def: The existential quantification of P(x) is the
statement “There exists an element x in the
domain such that P(x)”. The notation  x P(x)
denotes the existential quantification of P(x).
Here  is called existential quantifier.
 Example: Let P(x) = “x > 3”. What is the truth
value of the quantification x P(x), where the
domain consists of all real numbers?
 Sol: Because P(x) is sometimes true - for
instance, when x=4 – the existential
quantification of P(x), which is x P(x), is true.

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 Predicates and Quantifiers –
Existential Quantifiers
 Example: Let P(x) = “x = x+1”. What is the truth
value of the quantification  x P(x), where the
domain consists of all real numbers?
 Sol: Because P(x) is false for every real number x,
the quantification  x P(x) is false.
 Q11: Let Q(x) = “x2 > 10”. What is the truth value
of the quantification  x Q(x), where the domain
consists of positive integers not exceeding 4?
 Q12: Let R(x) = “x2 ≥ x”. What is the truth value
of the quantification  x R(x), where the domain
consists of all real numbers? What is the truth
value of the quantification if the domain consists
of all integers?
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 Predicates and Quantifiers –
Translating English into Logical
Expression
 Example: Express the statement “Every student
in this class has studied calculus” using
predicates and quantifiers.
 Sol: We rewrite as “For every student in this
class, the student has studied calculus”.
=> “For every student x in this class, x has
studied calculus”.
Let P(x) = “x has studied calculus”, then our
statement is represented by xP(x).
 Q13: Express the statements “Some students in
this class visited Dubai” and “Every student in
this class has visited either Makkah or Madina”
using predicates and quantifiers.
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 Predicates and Quantifiers –
Quantifiers with Restricted Domain
 Example: What do the statements x < 0(x2 > 0),
y≠0(y3 ≠ 0), and z > 0(z2 = 2) mean, where the
domain in each case consists of all real numbers?
 Sol: The statement x < 0(x2 > 0) states that for
every number x with x < 0, x2 > 0. That is, it states
“The square of a negative real number is positive”.
The statement is the same as x (x < 0 → x2 > 0).
The statement y ≠ 0(y3 ≠ 0) states that for every
real number y with y ≠ 0, we have y3 ≠ 0. That is, it
states “The cube of every nonzero real is nonzero”.
The statement is the same as y (y ≠ 0 → y3 ≠ 0).
Finally, the statement z > 0(z2 = 2) states that
there exist a real number z with z > 0 such that
z2=2. That is, it states “There is positive square
root of 2”. The statement is the same as z (z > 0
⌃z 2
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= 2). 36
 Predicates and Quantifiers –
Quantifiers with Restricted Domain
 Note: The restriction of a universal quantification is
the same as the universal quantification of a
conditional statement. For instance, x < 0(x2 > 0)
is another way of expressing x (x < 0 → x2 > 0).
 On the other hand, the restriction of an existential
quantification is the same as the existential
quantification of a conjunction. For instance,
z>0(z2=2) can be expressed as z (z > 0 ⌃ z2 =
2).
 Precedence of Quantifiers: The quantifiers  and 
have higher precedence then all logical operators
from propositional calculus. For example, xP(x) v
Q(x) is the disjunction of xP(x) and Q(x). In other
words, it means (xP(x)) v Q(x) rather than x
(P(x) v Q(x))
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 Predicates and Quantifiers –
Negating Quantified Expression
 Example: x P(x) means “P(x) is true for every
x”. What about x P(x) ?
 Sol: x P(x) = Not [“P(x) is true for every x.”]
=> “There is an x for which P(x) is not true.”
=> x P(x)
So, x P(x) is logically equivalent to x P(x).
 Example: x P(x) means “P(x) is true for some
x”. What about x P(x) ?
 Sol: x P(x) = Not [“P(x) is true for some x.”]
=> “P(x) is not true for all x.”
=> x P(x)
So, x P(x) is logically equivalent to x P(x).
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 Predicates and Quantifiers –
Negating Quantified Expression
 De Morgan’s laws for quantifiers:

Negatio Equivalen When is When

n t Negation True? False?
Statemen
t
 x x P(x) For every x, There is an
P(x) P(x) is false x for which
P(x) is true
 x P(x) There is an x
x P(x) for which P(x) P(x) is true
is false for every x
12/06/24 39
 Predicates and Quantifiers –
Negating Quantified Expression
 Example: What are the negations of the statements
“There is a religious man” and “All Saudi eat Rice”?
 Sol: Let P(x) = “x is a religious”,
=> “There is a religious man”= xP(x), where the
domain consists of all men
Now, xP(x) = xP(x) =“Every man is
nonreligious”.
Next, let Q(x) = “x eats Rice”
=> “All Saudi eat Rice” = xQ(x), where the
domain consists of all Saudi
Now,  xQ(x) = xQ(x) = “Some Saudi does not
eat rice”.
 Q14: What are the negations of the statements
x (x2 > x) and x (x2 = 2)”?
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 Predicates and Quantifiers –
Negating Quantified Expression
 Example: Let L(x) = “x is a lion”, F(x) = “x is
fierce”, and C(x) = “x drinks coffee”. Show the
quantifiers for the statements (i) All lions are
fierce, (ii) Some lions don’t drink coffee, (iii)
Some fierce creatures don’t drink coffee.
 Sol: (i) x (L(x)  F(x)), ii) x (L(x)  C(x)), and
(iii) x (F(x)  C(x))
 Q15: Let B(x) = “x is a hummingbird”, L(x) = “x
is a large bird”, H(x) = “x lives on honey”, and
R(x) = “x is richly colored”. Show the quantifiers
for the statements (i) All hummingbirds are
richly colored, (ii) No large birds live on honey,
(iii) Birds that do not live on honey are dully
colored, and (iv) Not all large birds live on
honey.
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 Predicates and Quantifiers – Logical
Equivalences
 Example: Show that x (P(x)  Q(x)) and xP(x) 
x Q(x) are logically equivalent.
 Sol: Let x (P(x)  Q(x)) is true
=> if a is in the domain, then P(a)  Q(a) is true
=> P(a) and Q(a) are true, for all a in the
domain
=> xP(x) and xQ(x) are true
=> xP(x)  xQ(x) is true
So, they are logically equivalent.
 Q16: Show that x(P(x)Q(x)) and x(P(x) 
Q(x)) are logically equivalent.
12/06/24 42
 Nested Quantifiers – Definition

 Def: Two quantifiers are said to be nested if one is

within the scope of the other, such as
xy (x + y = 0)
 Note that xy (x + y = 0) is same as xQ(x),
where Q(x) is yP(x, y), where P(x, y) is x + y = 0.
 Example: Assume that the domain for the
variables x and y consists of all real numbers.
 The statement

xy (x + y = y + x)
says that x + y = y + x for all real numbers x
and y. This is commutative law for addition of
real numbers.
12/06/24 43
 Nested Quantifiers – Example

 Example:
 Similarly, the statement
xy (x + y = 0)
says that for every real number x there is a
real number y such that x + y = 0. This states
that every real number has an additive
inverse.
 Similarly, the statement
xyz (x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z)
is associative law for addition of real
numbers.
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 Nested Quantifiers – Order of
Quantifiers
 Example: Let P(x, y) be the statement “x + y = y +
x”. What are the truth values of the quantifications
xyP(x, y) and yxP(x, y), where the domain for
all variables consists of all real numbers?
 Sol: xyP(x, y) = “For all real numbers x, for all
real numbers y, x + y = y + x”.
Since P(x, y) is true for all real numbers x and y,
the proposition xyP(x, y) is also true.
Also, yxP(x, y) = “For all real numbers y, for all
real numbers x, x + y = y + x” = xyP(x, y).
 Note: Order of nested universal quantifiers in a
statement without other quantifiers can be
changed without changing meaning of quantified
statement.
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 Nested Quantifiers – Order of
Quantifiers
 Example: Let Q(x, y) be the statement “x + y =
0”. What are the truth values of the
quantifications yxQ(x, y) and xyQ(x, y),
where the domain for all variables consists of all
real numbers?
 Sol: yxQ(x, y) = “There is a real number y such
that for every real number x, x + y = 0”.
Since there is no real number y such that x + y =
0, for all real numbers x, the proposition yxQ(x,
y) is false.
xyQ(x, y) = “For every real number x, there is a
real number y such that x + y = 0”.
Given a real number x, there is a real number y,
namely y = -x, such that x + y =0. So, xyQ(x,
y) is true.
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 Nested Quantifiers – Quantification
of Two Variables
Statemen When True? When False?
t
xyP(x, P(x, y) is true for every There is a pair x, y for
y) pair x, y. which P(x, y) is false
yxP(x,
y)
xyP(x, For every x there is a y There is an x such that
y), for which P(x, y) is true P(x, y) is false for every y
xyP(x, There is an x such that For every x there is a y
y) P(x, y) is true for every y for which P(x, y) is false
 Q17: Let Q(x, y) = “x + y = y”. What are the truth
xyP(x, There is a pair x, y for P(x, y) is false for every
y) values of the P(x,
which quantifications
y) is true pair x, y. y) and
yxQ(x,
xyQ(x, y), where the domain for all variables
yxP(x,
y)
consists of all real numbers?
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 Nested Quantifiers – Order of
Quantifiers
 Example: Let Q(x, y, z) be the statement “x + y =
z”. What are the truth values of the
quantifications xyzQ(x, y, z) and zxyQ(x,
y, z), where the domain for all variables consists
of all real numbers?
 Sol: xyzQ(x, y, z) = “For all real numbers x
and for all real numbers y there is a real number z
such that x + y = z” is true.
The order of quantification is important here.
Since zxyQ(x, y, z) = “There is a real number
z such that for all real numbers x and for all real
numbers y, x + y = z”, is false, because there is
no z that satisfies the equation x + y = z for all
for all real numbers x and y
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 Nested Quantifiers – Translating
Statements
 Example: Translate the statement “The sum of two
positive integers is always positive” into a logical
expression.
 Sol: Let x and y be two positive integers, then we
can write the statement as “For all positive
integers x and y, x + y is positive”. This can be
expressed as xy((x > 0) ⌃ (y > 0) → (x + y >
0)), where the domain for both variables consists of
integers. We can also express this as xy(x + y >
0), where the domain for both variables consists of
positive integers.
 Q18: Translate the statement “Every real number
except zero has a multiplicative inverse” into a
logical expression.
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 Nested Quantifiers – Translating
From Nested Quantifiers
 Example: Translate the statement
x(C(x) v y(C(y) ⌃ F(x, y)))
into English, where C(x)=“x has a computer”, F(x, y)
= “x and y are friends”, and the domain for both x
and y consists of all students in your class.
 Sol: The statement says that for every student x in
your class, x has a computer or there is a student y
such that y has computer and x and y are friends. In
other words, every student in your class has a
computer or has a friend who has a computer.
 Q19: Translate the statement
xyz((F(x, y) ⌃ F(x, z) ⌃ (y ≠ z)) → F(y, z))
into English, where F(a, b) means a and b are
friends and the domain for x, y and z consists of all
students in your class.
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 End of
Chapter I

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