The Quantum

Mechanical Model
of the Atom
The Quantum Mechanical Model of the
Atom
In 1924, physicist Louis de Broglie proposed the idea that electrons could have wavelike
properties.

To describe the problem of trying to locate a subatomic particle that behaves like a
wave, Werner Heisenberg formulated what is now known as the Heisenberg
uncertainty principle:'it is impossible to simultaneously determine the exact position and the
exact momentum of an electron'.

This means that the electron can be described in terms of probability rather than by
definite position.

In 1926 the Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger, formulated an equation known as wave
equation or Schrödinger equation to describe the behavior and energies of an electron in
the H atom.

Solutions to the wave equation are called wave functions , which predict the allowed
energy states of an electron and the probability of finding that electron in a given region
of space.
The Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
The Quantum mechanical model is the
electron cloud model of an atom.

Electron cloud, also called electron density,

gives the probability that an electron will be
found in a particular region of an atom.

The density of the dots indicates the

probability of the electron being there. The
cloud of dots that is more dense indicates
that the probability of finding the electron is
higher nearer the nucleus than farther from it.
The Quantum Numbers
Three quantum numbers derived from the mathematical solution of the Schrödinger
equation for the hydrogen atom will be used to describe atomic orbitals and to label
electrons that reside in them.
A fourth quantum number describes the behavior of a specific electron and
completes the description of electrons in atoms.
1. Principal Quantum Number (n): n = 1, 2, 3, …, ∞
• Designated by n which corresponds to the Main Energy Level ( MEL) or the
principal energy level
• Specifies the energy of an electron and the size of the orbital.
• All orbitals that have the same value of n are said to be in the same level or shell.
• Electrons can only exist at certain energy levels.
• Low energy levels are close to the nucleus.
The Quantum Numbers
2. Angular momentum (Azimuthal, secondary) Quantum Number l = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4…., (n - 1)
( l ):• Each principal energy level includes one or more subshell denoted by second quantum
number ( l ).
• It specifies the shape of the electron cloud corresponding to an orbital.
• • The
if nvalues
= of l l=depend
0 (1on
subshell) n = 3: quantum
the value of the principal l = 0, 1, 2
number, (3n.subshells)
1:
n = 2: l = 0, 1 (2 subshells) n = 4: l = 0, 1, 2, 3 (4 subshells)
• The number of types of orbital within a principal energy level equals n. For n = 2, there
are 2 types of orbitals (0 and 1); for n = 3, there are 3 types of orbitals (0,1 and 2) and
so on..
• To avoid confusion with n, the value of l is generally designated by letters
• The combination of n value and the letter (s, p, d, or f ) are used to designate specific
subshells.
• For the first four principal energy levels, the designation of specific subshells
are as follows:
The Quantum Numbers
3. Magnetic Quantum Number (ml ):
ml = - l, ..., 0, ..., + l..
• It describes the orientation of atomic orbitals.

• s subshell (l = 0) has only one orientation

ml = 0
 electron probability density is highest at the nucleus
 spherical shape with the nucleus at the center

• p subshell (l = 1) has three possible orientations

ml = -1, 0, +1
 It is shaped like dumbbells having 2 regions of high
probability
 Within each p subshell there are three different types of orbitals:
 ml = -1 (px),
 ml = 0 (py),
 ml = +1 (pz).
The Quantum Numbers
3. Magnetic Quantum Number (ml ):
ml = - l, ..., 0, ..., + l..

• d subshell (l = 2) has 5 possible orientation

ml = -2, -1, 0, +1, +2
 have 2 different shapes: Four cloverleaf-shaped
and one dumbbell-shaped with a ring at the
center

• f orbitals (l = 3) has 7 possible orientations;

ml = -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3
 have the most diffused shape compared to the other
orbitals
The Quantum Numbers

• Within a principal energy level the total number of orbitals

equals n2 . Example: for n = 3 there are 32 or 9 orbitals;
one 3s + three 3p + five 3d.
for n = 2 there are 22 or 4 orbitals; one 2s + three 2p
The Quantum Numbers

4. Spin Quantum Number (ms):

ms = +½ or -½.
• It describes the rotation of an
electron around an axis
• Electrons are said to have parallel
spins if they have the same ms
quantum number (both +½ or both
-½ ).
• Electrons are said to be paired when
they are in the same orbital and
have opposite spins － one has an
ms of +½ and the other has a -½
value
Pauli Exclusion Principle
• To make quantum theory consistent
with experiment, Wolfgang Pauli
(Nobel Prize 1925) states the Pauli QUANTU
exclusion principle: M
 No more than two electrons can NUMBER
occupy the same orbital in an atom,
and these electrons must have
S
n → shell 1, 2, 3, 4, ...
opposite spins l → subshell 0, 1, 2, ... n - 1
 This means that no two electrons ml → orbital -l ... 0 ... +l
in the same atom can have the ms → electron spin +½ and -½
same set of four quantum
numbers n, l, ml, and ms.
• For the 2 electrons in 2s orbitals, the
• We can regard the set of four quantum set of quantum numbers (n, l, ml, ms)
numbers as the “address” of an electron are :
in an atom.  1st electron: ( 2, 0, 0, +½)
• For convenience, the simplified  2nd electron : (2, 0, 0, -½)
notation (n, l, ml, ms) will be used.
Learning Check....
1 What is the total number of orbitals associated with the principal quantum number
. n = 3? n = 4?
 number of orbitals = n2
 for n = 3; 9 total number of orbitals
 for n = 4; 16 total number of orbitals
2. Give the values of the quantum numbers associated with the orbitals in the 3p
subshell.
3. Give  n=
the 3
subshell designation for an electron with n = 5, l = 3 quantum

numbers.l = 1 ( p is the designated letter for l = 1)
4  5f four quantum numbers for electrons in a
Write the
. 3p orbital.
n=3;l=1
 for l = 1, there are three values of ml = -1, 0, and +1.
 the electron spin quantum number ms can be either +½ or -½, so there are six
possible ways to designate the electron using the (n, l, ml, ms) notation:
(3, 1, -1, +½) (3, 1, -1, -½)
(3, 1, 0, +½) (3, 1, 0, -½)
(3, 1, +1, +½) (3, 1, +1, -½
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