Unit: The Cell

Module: Cellular Reproduction

and Sexual Reproduction
Lesson:1: Cellular Reproduction

Date: 17/05/2022 Textbook Pg No:232

 Key Performance


Indicators
Explain the effect of surface area to volume ratio on the function of the cell, to include calculations
Analyze why cell size is limited, to include exchange of materials and transport of signaling proteins for cellular communication
 Explain the importance of the cell cycle for the growth of cells and repair of tissues
 Illustrate the main events of the cell cycle to include the processes taking place during interphase (G1, S and G2), mitosis and cytokinesis, leading to
genetically identical cells
 Analyze, using a graph, the quantity of genetic material during different stages of the cell cycle
 Hypothesize why cytokinesis represents the smallest amount of time that a cell spends in the cell cycle
 Differentiate between the different structures or forms of genetic material (DNA) to include, chromosomes, chromatids and chromatin
 Describe the events that occur during each of the stages of the cell cycle (interphase, mitosis and cytokinesis)
 Analyze the relationship between cell size and the stages of the cell cycle
 Differentiate between cellular reproduction in prokaryotic (binary fission) and eukaryotic cells (cell cycle)
 Summarize how repeating the cell cycle and mitosis allow the organism to grow

 Analyze how mitosis ensures the transfer of the complete genetic material from parents to two genetically identical daughter cells
 Describe the specific events that occur within each stage of mitosis and cytokinesis
 Sketch the specific events that occur within each stage of mitosis and cytokinesis
 Identify the function of each structure in mitosis to include: centromeres, microtubules, motor proteins, spindle apparatus, centrioles
 Diagram and label the chromosome in each stage of mitosis
 Compare the key activity of interphase with the key activity of mitosis
 Explain the collaborative roles of mitosis and cytokinesis in the production of daughter cells
 Compare and contrast cytokinesis in plant and animal cells
 Observe the different stages of mitosis and cytokinesis in real plant and animal cells using a microscope

 Demonstrate the stages of mitosis and cytokinesis via the medium of choice (i.e. model, animation, acting, etc.)

 Describe the role of checkpoints in regulating the cell cycle, to include cyclin proteins and cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs)
 Identify common carcinogens
 Explain the effects of disruptions to the cell cycle to include cancer and apoptosis
 Research types of cells that do not divide or only divide under special conditions; to include but not limited to, nerve cells, liver cells, and cardiac cells
 Infer the difference in the rates of cell division between cancerous and non-cancerous cells
 Predict the impact of an increased rate of cell division on an organism
Vocabulary
Focus Question: What are the primary stages of
the cell cycle?

Learning
Objectives
By the end of this lesson, you will be able to;

1-Understand importance of cell size .

2- Analyze cell surface area to volume ratio

 Introduction
• Since all living organisms are made of
cells, the only way an organism can
grow or heal itself is by cellular
reproduction.

• Cell sizes must be limited to ensure

that the needs of the cells are met.
• Most cells are smaller than the period
on the end of this sentence. !!! WHY
ARE THEY SO SMALL???...
 Cell Size Limitations
Ratio of Surface Area to Volume

 Several factors influence cell size.

 Surface area is the area covered by the
plasma membrane.
 The plasma membrane is the structure
through which all the nutrients and waste
products must pass.
 Volume is the space taken up by the inner
contents of the cell.
 The ratio of surface area to volume decreases
as a cell gets bigger.
 Cells with a higher ratio of surface area to
volume can sustain themselves more easily.
 Cell Size Limitations
1. Surfacearea to volume ratio
A. Surface Area= all of the area available for reactions to occur
(covered by the plasma membrane….)
Formula= length x width x # of sides

B. Volume= space inside (includes organelles and

cytoplasm…)
Formula= length x width x height
 Cell Size Limitations

How to find surface area?

Length = 12 cm
1 side = 12 x 12 = (12)2
1 side = 144 cm2
6 sides = 144 x 6 = 864 cm2

https://www.liveworksheets.com/jt1980005xd
 Cell Size Limitations

How to find volume?

If s = 12cm, what is our volume?

https://www.liveworksheets.com/nd2350426o
z
 Activity

Complete the worksheet given

Is bigger better??

No!! Small cells transport substances more

efficiently.

Surface area to volume ratio decreases as the cell

grows larger.
 Cell Size Limitations
Transport of Substances
• Smaller cells can transport substances more
easily.
• Diffusion is inefficient over longer distances.
• The cytoskeleton transportation network
becomes less efficient for a cell if the
distance to travel becomes too large.

Cellular Communication
• Cellular communication is more efficient in
smaller cells.
 Cell Size Limitations

Activity

https://www.liveworksheets.com/jy1578808zd
Chapter Cellular Reproduction

Section 1 Formative
Questions

Which can more efficiently supply nutrients and

expel waste products?

A. larger cells
B. smaller cells
C. cells with lower surface area to volume ratio
1. A
D. cells shaped like a cube 2. B
3. C
4. D

FQ 1
Chapter Cellular Reproduction

Section 1 Formative
Questions

Which can more efficiently supply nutrients and

expel waste products?

A. larger cells
B. smaller cells
C. cells with lower surface area to volume ratio
1. A
D. cells shaped like a cube 2. B
3. C
4. D

FQ 1
Focus Question: What are the primary stages of
the cell cycle?

Learning
Objectives
By the end of this lesson, you will be able to;

1- Describe the events that occur in the cell cycle.

2- Explain how the cancer cell cycle is different

from a normal cell cycle
 Chromosomes
Chromatin and Chromosomes
• Chromatin is the relaxed form of
DNA.
• Chromosomes are condensed
structures that contain the DNA that
are visible during mitosis.
• They are passed from generation to
generation.
• Eukaryotic DNA is organized into
chromosomes.
• The phosphate groups in DNA
create a negative charge, which
attracts the DNA to the positively
charged histone proteins and form
a nucleosome.
• The nucleosomes group together
into chromatin fibers, which
supercoil to make up the
chromosome.
Chromatin and chromosomes
 Chromosomes

centromere

• Sister chromatids are structures that contain identical copies of DNA. They are
attached at the centromere.
 Chromosomes

Compare:
• Chromosome
• Chromatid
• Chromatin
• Histones
• Nucleosomes

• You can draw or

write!
Nucleosome DNA + HISTONES = NUCLEOSOME

• The negatively
charged phosphate
groups in DNA, are
attracted to the
positively charged
histone proteins
and form a
nucleosome.
STAGES OF CELL CYCLE
 The Cell Cycle
• Cells reproduce by a cycle
of growing and dividing
called the cell cycle.

Interphase
• Interphase is the stage
during which the cell
grows, develops into a
mature, functional cell,
duplicates the DNA in its
nucleus, and prepares for
division.
• Interphase is divided into
three stages: Gap 1(G1),
synthesis (S), and Gap 2
(G2).
 The Cell Cycle
• Gap 1(G1): Immediately after
a cell divides. Growing,
carrying out normal cellular
functions, and preparing to
replicate DNA (Side note:
muscle and nerve cells exit
after this step, brain damage
is permanent!)

• Synthesis (S): copying DNA Mitosis: cell nucleus and nuclear

to prepare for division material divide (4 substages).
Cytokinesis: cytoplasm divides
• Gap 2 (G2): preparing for the creating a new cell. *shortest
division of nucleus/ mitosis. time spent here.
Chapter Cellular Reproduction

Section 1 Formative
Questions

At what stage does a cell spend most of

its life?

A. cytokinesis
B. interphase
C. mitosis 1.
2.
A
B
3. C
D. synthesis 4. D

FQ 2
Chapter Cellular Reproduction

Section 1 Formative
Questions

What happens in the cell during cytokinesis?

A. The cell grows and carries out normal
functions.
B. The cell copies its DNA and forms
chromosomes.
C. The cell’s nucleus and nuclear material
1. A
divide. 2. B
3. C
D. The cell’s cytoplasm divides. 4. D

FQ 3
 The Cell Cycle
Mitosis
• The stage of the cell cycle during which the cell’s nucleus
• and nuclear material divide is called mitosis.

• The cell’s replicated genetic material separates, and the

• cell prepares to split into two.

• In multicellular organisms, mitosis increases the number

• of cells in young, growing organisms.

• Organisms also use mitosis to replace damaged cells.

• Mitosis also helps maintain chromosome number in

• organisms that undergo asexual reproduction.
 The Cell Cycle

Mitosis (4 stages - PMAT)

• The stage of the cell cycle during which the parent cell’s
nucleus and nuclear material divide is called mitosis.
• The cell’s replicated genetic material separates, and the
cell prepares to split into two new daughter cells.
L.O Explain how mitosis results in the transmission of chromosomes from one generation to the
next
Animation

Please note that due to differing

operating systems, some animations
will not appear until the presentation is
viewed in Presentation Mode (Slide
Show view). You may see blank slides
in the “Normal” or “Slide Sorter” views.
All animations will appear after viewing
in Presentation Mode and playing each
animation. Most animations will require
the latest version of the Flash Player,
which is available at
http://get.adobe.com/flashplayer.
 The Cell Cycle
The Stages of Mitosis

Prophase: the first and longest stage of

mitosis
• Chromatin condenses into
chromosomes.
• Sister chromatids are structures that
contain identical copies of DNA. They
are attached at the centromere.
• As prophase continues, spindle fibers,
centrioles, and aster fibers form a
spindle apparatus, as shown in the next
slide.
• The apparatus attaches to each of the
sister chromatids before cell division.
 The Cell Cycle
Metaphase: the second stage Anaphase: the third stage of
of mitosis mitosis
• Sister chromatids are pulled • Chromatids pull apart.
along the spindle apparatus • Microtubules of the spindle
toward the center of the apparatus begin to shorten.
cell and line up. • Sister chromatids separate.
• Chromosomes move
toward the poles of the cell.
centromere
 The Cell Cycle

Telophase: the last stage of mitosis.

• Chromosomes arrive at poles and begin to relax.
• Two new nuclear membranes begin to form,
and the nucleoli reappear.
 The Cell Cycle
Cytokinesis
• Towards the end of mitosis, the cell
begins cytokinesis by which a cell’s
cytoplasm divides, resulting in two
cells with identical nuclei.
• During cytokinesis in animal cells,
microfilaments constrict/pinch off to
form two cells.
• In plant cells, instead of pinching in
half, a new structure called the cell
plate forms between the two daughter
nuclei.
Chapter Cellular Reproduction

Section 2 Formative
Questions

In what stage of the cell cycle does the

cell’s replicated genetic material separate?

A. cytokinesis
B. interphase
C. mitosis 1.
2.
A
B
3. C
D. prophase 4. D

FQ 4
Chapter Cellular Reproduction

Section 2 Formative
Questions

Which diagram shows anaphase?

A. B.

1. A
C. D. 2. B
3. C
4. D

FQ 5
Chapter Cellular Reproduction

Section 2 Formative
Questions

At the end of mitosis the nuclear material is

divided and two new cells have formed.

A. true
B. false
1. A
2. B

FQ 6
 Cell Cycle Regulation
• Cells have specific instructions for carrying out and
completing the cell cycle.
• The complex system sometimes fails.
The Role of Cyclins
• The cell cycle in eukaryotic cells is driven by a
combination of two substances.
• Proteins called cyclins bind to enzymes called cyclin-
dependent kinases (CDKs).
• Different cyclin/CDK combinations control different
activities during different stages of the cell cycle.
 Cell Cycle Regulation
Quality control checkpoints
• Built-in checkpoints monitor the cycle and can stop it if something
goes wrong.
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/cellular-

Cyclins are a family of proteins that controls the progression of a cell through
molecular-biology/stem-cells-and-cancer/a/cell-cycle-

the cell cycle.

regulators/

EXAMPLE: M cyclin promotes the

Cyclins helps drive the events events of M phase, such as nuclear
and the phases of the cell cycle envelope breakdown and
chromosome condensation

Four basic cyclins in eukaryotic

cells: G1 cyclins, G1/S cyclins, S
Cyclins are cycle regulators
cyclins, and M cyclins.
 Cell Cycle Regulation
Apoptosis
• Not every cell is destined to
survive. Some cells go through
apoptosis, or programmed cell
death.
• These cells shrink or shrivel in a
controlled process.
• An example of apoptosis occurs
in the development of the
human hand and foot. Cells in
spaces between fingers and
toes undergo apoptosis.
• An example in plants is the
localized death of cells that
results in leaves falling from
trees during autumn.
 Cell Cycle Regulation
Abnormal Cell Cycle: Cancer

• Cancer is the uncontrolled growth

and division of cells. Cancer results
when cells stop responding to the
controls of the cell cycle.
• Cancer cells can kill an organism by
crowding out normal cells,
resulting in loss of tissue function.
Cancer Genetics
• More than one change in DNA is
required to change an abnormal
cell into a cancer cell.
• This might explain why risk
increases with age.
 Cell Cycle Regulation
Causes of Cancer
• Mutations cause cancer cell growth and division.

• Environmental factors can affect the occurrence of cancer cells.

• Carcinogens are substances or agents known to cause cancer.

  Governmental
attempts to ensure
the public's safety
include warnings  The Food and
against exposure Drug
to substances Administration
such as benzene, (FDA) applies
asbestos, warning labels to
Not all cancers can hydrocarbons, certain cancer-
arsenic, and
be prevented but radiation.
causing
substances, such
avoiding known as cigarettes,
carcinogens can which contain
help reduce the tobacco and
 Hazardous chemical other
cleanups
risk. carcinogens.
are regulated by federal
government agencies such the
Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA), the National
Institutes of Health (NIH), and
the Occupational Safety and
Health Administration (OSHA)
Chapter Cellular Reproduction

Section 3 Formative
Questions

What are the “key and ignition” that start the

various activities in the cell cycle?
A. chromatin and chromosomes
B. cyclin and CDKs
C. microtubules and spindle fibers 1. A
D. protein and ribosomes 2.
3.
B
C
4. D

FQ 7
Chapter Cellular Reproduction

Section 3 Formative
Questions

Which of these cancer-causing substances or

agents is impossible to avoid completely?
A. chemicals such as asbestos
B. food and drinks that the FDA warns may
contain carcinogens
C. tobacco and second-hand smoke 1. A
D. ultraviolet radiation from the Sun 2.3. BC
4. D

FQ 8
Chapter Cellular Reproduction

Section 3 Formative
Questions

What is the term for the programmed death

of cells that are damaged beyond repair or
have harmful changes in their DNA?

A. apoptosis
B. carcinogens 1. A
C. cytokinesis 2.
3.
B
C
4. D
D. mitosis

FQ 9
Chapter Cellular Reproduction

Section 3 Formative
Questions

Which cells are not locked into becoming

one particular kind of cell and are capable
of developing into specialized tissues?

A. apoptotic cells
B. cancer cells 1. A
2. B
C. prokaryotic cells 3. C
4. D
D. stem cells

FQ 10
Chapter Cellular Reproduction

Chapter Diagnostic
Questions

Which is the first phase of mitosis?

A. interphase
B. prophase
C. metaphase
1. A
D. telophase 2. B
3. C
4. D

CDQ 1
Chapter Cellular Reproduction

Chapter Diagnostic
Questions

During what phase do the sister chromatids

line up in the middle of the cell?

A. interphase
B. metaphase
C. anaphase 1.
2.
A
B
3. C
D. telophase 4. D

CDQ 2
Chapter Cellular Reproduction

Chapter Diagnostic
Questions

Which is not a phase of the cell cycle?

A. cytokinesis
B. interphase
C. apoptosis
1. A
D. mitosis 2. B
3. C
4. D

CDQ 3
Chapter Cellular Reproduction

Chapter Assessment
Questions

This cell has completed

what stage of mitosis?

A. anaphase
B. interphase
C. metaphase 1.
2.
A
B
3. C
D. telophase 4. D

CAQ 1
Chapter Cellular Reproduction

Chapter Assessment
Questions

What term is used to describe programmed

cell death?

A. apoptosis
B. anaphase
C. necrosis 1.
2.
A
B
3. C
D. cyclins 4. D

CAQ 2
Chapter Cellular Reproduction

Chapter Assessment
Questions

What is the role of cyclins in a cell?

A. to control the movement of microtubules
B. to signal for the cell to divide
C. to stimulate the breakdown of the nuclear
membrane
D. to cause the nucleolus to disappear
1. A
2. B
3. C
4. D

CAQ 3
Chapter Cellular Reproduction

Standardized Test
Practice

Which cell has the lowest ratio of surface area

to volume?
C
B
A
1. A
2. B
3. C

STP 1
Chapter Cellular Reproduction

Standardized Test
Practice

At what stage of interphase

does the cell take inventory
and make sure it is ready for
the division of its nucleus?

A. G1
1. A
B. S 2. B
3. C
C. G2 4. D

D. M

STP 2
Chapter Cellular Reproduction

Standardized Test
Practice

Which occurs in plant cells but not animal cells

during the cell cycle?
A. formation of a cell plate
B. formation of microtubules
C. formation of a cleavage furrow at the equator of
1. A
the cell 2. B
3. C
D. movement of chromosomes to the poles
4. D
of the
cell

STP 3
Chapter Cellular Reproduction

Standardized Test
Practice

Multiple changes in DNA are required to

change an abnormal cell into a cancer cell.

A. true
B. false
1. A
2. B

STP 4
Chapter Cellular Reproduction

Standardized Test
Practice

Which is not a condition that can result in cancer?

A. a failure in the control mechanisms that regulate
the cell cycle
B. a failure in the repair systems that fix changes
or damage to DNA
C. a failure of the spindle fibers to move
chromosomes
during mitosis 1. A
2. B
D. mutations or changes in segments of 3. DNACthat
control protein production 4. D

STP 5
 Quiz

1. Which is a reason why cells remain small?

A Large cells have difficulty diffusing nutrients rapidly

enough.
B As cells grow, their ratio of surface area to
volume decreases.

C Transportation of wastes becomes a problem for

large cells.
D All of the above.
CORRECT
 Quiz

2. Which describes the activities of a cell that

include cellular growth and cell division?

A cell cycle C mitosis

CORRECT

B chromatin D cytoplasm
 Quiz

3. What is the role of cyclins in a cell?

A to control the C to stimulate the

movement of breakdown of the
microtubules nuclear membrane

D to cause the
B to signal for the cell to
divide CORRECT nucleolus to
disappear
 Quiz
4. What substances form the cyclin-cyclin dependent
kinase combinations that control the stages in the cell
cycle?

A fats and proteins

B carbohydrates and proteins

C proteins and enzymes CORRECT

D fats and enzymes

 Quiz

5. Which is a characteristic of cancer cells?

A They have controlled cell division.

B The cytokinesis stage is skipped.

C They contain multiple genetic changes.

CORRECT
D The cell cyclins function normally.
 Quiz

6. Which describes apoptosis?

A occurs in all cells

B disrupts the normal development of an organism

C a response to hormones
is

D is a programmed cell death

CORRECT