EET 3302- Applied Electronics II

Chapter 5- Oscillators

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 OSCILLATOR OPERATION
The use of positive feedback that results in a feedback
amplifier having closed-loop gain |Af | greater than 1 and
satisfies the phase conditions will result in operation as an
oscillator circuit. An oscillator circuit then provides a varying
output signal.
If the output signal varies sinusoidally, the circuit is referred
to as a sinusoidal oscillator.
If the output voltage rises quickly to one voltage level and
later drops quickly to another voltage level, the circuit is
generally referred to as a pulse or square-wave oscillator.
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To understand how a feedback circuit performs as an
oscillator, consider the feedback circuit of Fig. 5.1. When the
switch at the amplifier input is open, no oscillation occurs.
Consider that we have a fictitious voltage at the amplifier
input (Vi). This results in an output voltage Vo =AVi after the
amplifier stage and in a voltage Vf =  (AVi) after the
feedback stage. Thus, we have a feedback voltage Vf =(AVi),
where A is referred to as the loop gain. If the circuits of the
base amplifier and feedback network provide A of a correct
magnitude and phase, Vf can be made equal to Vi.

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Then, when the switch is closed and fictitious
voltage Vi is removed, the circuit will continue
operating since the feedback voltage is sufficient to
drive the amplifier and feedback circuits resulting in
a proper input voltage to sustain the loop operation.
The output waveform will still exist after the switch
is closed if the condition is met.

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This is known as the Barkhausen criterion for
oscillation. In reality, no input signal is needed to
start the oscillator going. Only the condition A =1
must be satisfied for self-sustained oscillations to
result. In practice, A is made greater than 1 and the
system is started oscillating by amplifying noise
voltage, which is always present.

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 PHASE-SHIFT OSCILLATOR

An example of an oscillator circuit that follows the

basic development of a feedback circuit is the phase-
shift oscillator. An idealized version of this circuit is
shown in Fig. 5.2. Recall that the requirements for
oscillation are that the loop gain, A, is greater than
unity and that the phase shift around the feedback
network is 180° (providing positive feedback).

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Concentrating our attention on the phase-shift
network, we are interested in the attenuation of the
network at the frequency at which the phase shift is
exactly 180°. Using classical network analysis, we find
that

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When considering the operation of the feedback network,
one might naively select the values of R and C to provide (at a
specific frequency) 60°-phase shift per section for three
sections, resulting in a 180° phase shift, as desired. This,
however, is not the case, since each section of the RC in the
feedback network loads down the previous one. The net
result that the total phase shift be 180° is all that is important.
The frequency given by Eq. (5.2) is that at which the total
phase shift is 180°. If one measured the phase shift per RC
section, each section would not provide the same phase shift
(although the overall phase shift is 180°). If it were desired to
obtain exactly a 60° phase shift for each of three stages, then
emitter-follower stages would be needed for each RC section
to prevent each from being loaded from the following circuit.
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FET Phase-Shift Oscillator
A practical version of a phase-shift oscillator circuit is shown
in Fig. 5.3a. The circuit is drawn to show clearly the amplifier
and feedback network. The amplifier stage is self-biased with
a capacitor bypassed source resistor RS and a drain bias
resistor R. The FET device parameters of interest are gm and rd.
From FET amplifier theory

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 Transistor Phase-Shift Oscillator
If a transistor is used as the active element of the
amplifier stage, the output of the feedback network is
loaded appreciably by the relatively low input resistance
(hie) of the transistor. Of course, an emitter-follower input
stage followed by a common-emitter amplifier stage could
be used. If a single transistor stage is desired, however,
the use of voltage-shunt feedback (as shown in Fig. 5.3b)
is more suitable. In this connection, the feedback signal is
coupled through the feedback resistor R in series with the
amplifier stage input resistance (Ri).

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 IC Phase-Shift Oscillator
As IC circuits have become more popular, they have been
adapted to operate in oscillator circuits. One need buy only
an op-amp to obtain an amplifier circuit of stabilized gain
setting and incorporate some means of signal feedback to
produce an oscillator circuit.
For example, a phase-shift oscillator is shown in Fig. 5.4. The
output of the op-amp is fed to a three-stage RC network,
which provides the needed 180° of phase shift (at an
attenuation factor of 1/29). If the op-amp provides gain (set
by resistors Ri and Rf) of greater than 29, a loop gain greater
than unity results and the circuit acts as an oscillator
[oscillator frequency is given by Eq. (5.2)
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 WIEN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR

A practical oscillator circuit uses an op-amp and RC

bridge circuit, with the oscillator frequency set by the R
and C components. Figure 5.5 shows a basic version of
a Wien bridge oscillator circuit. Note the basic bridge
connection. Resistors R1 and R2 and capacitors C1 and C2
form the frequency-adjustment elements, while
resistors R3 and R4 form part of the feedback path. The
op-amp output is connected as the bridge input at
points ‘a’ and ‘c’. The bridge circuit output at points ‘b’
and ‘d’ is the input to the op-amp.
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Thus a ratio of R3 to R4 greater than 2 will provide
sufficient loop gain for the circuit to oscillate at the
frequency calculated using Eq.(5.11)

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 TUNED OSCILLATOR CIRCUIT Tuned-
Input, Tuned-Output Oscillator Circuits

A variety of circuits can be built using that shown in Fig. 5.6

by providing tuning in both the input and output sections of
the circuit. Analysis of the circuit of Fig. 5.6 reveals that the
following types of oscillators are obtained when the
reactance elements are as designated:

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 Colpitts Oscillator -FET COLPITTS
OSCILLATOR
A practical version of a FET Colpitts oscillator is
shown in Fig. 5.7. The circuit is basically the same
form as shown in Fig. 5.6 with the addition of the
components needed for dc bias of the FET
amplifier. The oscillator frequency can be found to
be

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 TRANSISTOR COLPITTS OSCILLATOR

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 IC COLPITTS OSCILLATOR
An op-amp Colpitts oscillator circuit is shown in Fig. 5.9. Again, the op-amp provides
the basic amplification needed while the oscillator frequency is set by an LC feedback
network of a Colpitts configuration. The oscillator frequency is given by Eq. (5.13).

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 Hartley Oscillator
If the elements in the basic resonant circuit of Fig. 5.6 are X1 and X2 (inductors)
and X3 (capacitor), the circuit is a Hartley oscillator.
FET HARTLEY OSCILLATOR
A FET Hartley oscillator circuit is shown in Fig. 5.10. The circuit is drawn so that
the feedback network conforms to the form shown in the basic resonant circuit
(Fig. 5.6). Note, however, that inductors L1 and L2 have a mutual coupling, M,
which must be taken into account in determining the equivalent inductance for
the resonant tank circuit. The circuit frequency of oscillation is then given
approximately by

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 TRANSISTOR HARTLEY OSCILLATOR
Figure 5.11 shows a transistor Hartley oscillator circuit.
The circuit operates at a frequency given by Eq. (5.15).

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 CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR
A crystal oscillator is basically a tuned-circuit oscillator using
a piezoelectric crystal as a resonant tank circuit. The crystal
(usually quartz) has a greater stability in holding constant at
whatever frequency the crystal is originally cut to operate.
Crystal oscillators are used whenever great stability is
required, such as in communication transmitters and
receivers.

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 Characteristics of a Quartz Crystal
A quartz crystal (one of a number of crystal types) exhibits the property that when
mechanical stress is applied across the faces of the crystal, a difference of
potential develops across opposite faces of the crystal. This property of a crystal is
called the piezoelectric effect. Similarly, a voltage applied across one set of faces of
the crystal causes mechanical distortion in the crystal shape.
When alternating voltage is applied to a crystal, mechanical vibrations are set up—
these vibrations having a natural resonant frequency dependent on the crystal.
Although the crystal has electromechanical resonance, we can represent the
crystal action by an equivalent electrical resonant circuit as shown in Fig. 5.12.

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The inductor L and capacitor C represent electrical
equivalents of crystal mass and compliance, while
resistance R is an electrical equivalent of the crystal
structure’s internal friction. The shunt capacitance CM
represents the capacitance due to mechanical mounting
of the crystal. Because the crystal losses, represented by
R, are small, the equivalent crystal Q (quality factor) is
high—typically 20,000. Values of Q up to almost 106 can
be achieved by using crystals.

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The crystal as represented by the equivalent electrical
circuit of Fig. 5.12 can have two resonant frequencies. One
resonant condition occurs when the reactances of the series
RLC leg are equal (and opposite). For this condition, the
series-resonant impedance is very low (equal to R). The
other resonant condition occurs at a higher frequency when
the reactance of the series-resonant leg equals the
reactance of capacitor CM. This is a parallel resonance or
antiresonance condition of the crystal. At this frequency,
the crystal offers a very high impedance to the external
circuit.

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The impedance versus frequency of the crystal is shown in Fig. 5.13.
In order to use the crystal properly, it must be connected in a circuit
so that its low impedance in the series-resonant operating mode or
high impedance in the antiresonant operating mode is selected.

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 Series-Resonant Circuits
To excite a crystal for operation in the series-resonant mode, it may
be connected as a series element in a feedback path. At the series-
resonant frequency of the crystal, its impedance is smallest and the
amount of (positive) feedback is largest. A typical transistor circuit is
shown in Fig. 5.14. Resistors R1, R2, and RE provide a voltage divider
stabilized dc bias circuit. Capacitor CE provides ac bypass of the
emitter re-sistor, and the RFC coil provides for dc bias while
decoupling any ac signal on the power lines from affecting the output
signal.
The voltage feedback from collector to base is a maximum when the
crystal impedance is minimum (in series-resonant mode). The
coupling capacitor CC has negligible impedance at the circuit
operating frequency but blocks any dc between collector and base.
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The resulting circuit frequency of oscillation is set, then, by the series-resonant
frequency of the crystal. Changes in supply voltage, transistor device parameters, and
so on have no effect on the circuit operating frequency, which is held stabilized by
the crystal. The circuit frequency stability is set by the crystal frequency stability,
which is good.

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 Parallel-Resonant Circuits

Since the parallel-resonant impedance of a crystal

is a maximum value, it is connected in shunt. At
the parallel-resonant operating frequency, a crystal
appears as an inductive reactance of largest value.
Figure 5.15 shows a crystal connected as the
inductor element in a modified Colpitts circuit. The
basic dc bias circuit should be evident.

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Maximum voltage is developed across the crystal at its
parallel-resonant frequency. The voltage is coupled to the
emitter by a crystal voltage divider- Capacitor C1 and C2.

A Miller crystal controlled oscillator circuit is shown in

figure 5.16. A tuned LC circuit in the drain section is
adjusted near the crystal parallel- resonant frequency. The
maximum gate-source signal occurs at the crystal
antiresonant frequency controlling the circuit operating
frequency.

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