EET 3302- Applied Electronics II

Chapter 6
Introduction to IC fabrication
INTRODUCTION
The circuits discussed so far in the previous chapters
consisted of separately manufactured components (e.g.
resistors, capacitors, diodes, transistors etc.) joined by wires
or plated conductors on printed boards. Such circuits are
known as discrete circuits because each component added to
the circuit is discrete (i.e. distinct or separate) from the
others. Discrete circuits have two main disadvantages.

Firstly, in a large circuit (e.g. TV circuit, computer circuit)

there may be hundreds of components and consequently
discrete assembly would occupy a large space.

Secondly, there will be hundreds of soldered points posing a

considerable problem of reliability.
To meet these problems of space conservation and
reliability, engineers started a drive for miniaturized circuits.
This led to the development of microelectronics in the late
1950s.
Microelectronics is the branch of electronics engineering
which deals with micro-circuits. A micro-circuit is simply a
miniature assembly of electronic components. One type of
such circuit is the integrated circuit, generally abbreviated
as IC. An integrated circuit has various components such as
resistors, capacitors, diodes, transistors etc. fabricated on a
small semiconductor chip.
How circuits containing hundreds of components are
fabricated on a small semiconductor chip to produce
an IC is a fascinating feat of microelectronics. This has not
only fulfilled the ever increasing demand of industries for
electronic equipment of smaller size, lighter weight and low
power requirements, but it has also resulted in high degree
of reliability.
Following, we shall focus our attention on the various
aspects of integrated circuits.
6.1 Integrated Circuit
An integrated circuit is one in which circuit components such
as transistors, diodes, resistors, capacitors etc. are
automatically part of a small semiconductor chip.
An integrated circuit consists of a number of circuit
components (e.g. transistors, diodes, resistors etc.) and their
inter connections in a single small package to perform a
complete electronic function. These components are formed
and connected within a small chip of semiconductor material.
The following points are worth noting about integrated
circuits :
(i) In an IC, the various components are automatically part
of a small semi-conductor chip and the individual
components cannot be removed or replaced. This is in
contrast to discrete assembly in which individual
components can be removed or replaced if necessary.

(ii) The size of an *IC is extremely small. In fact, ICs are so

small that you normally need a microscope to see the
connections between the components. Fig. 6.1 shows a
typical semi-conductor chip having dimensions 0.2 mm
× 0.2 mm × 0.001 mm. It is possible to produce circuits
containing many transistors, diodes, resistors etc. on the
surface of this small chip.
*Since it combines both active (e.g., transistors, diodes etc.) and passive elements
(e.g., resistors, capacitors etc.) in a monolithic structure, the complete unit is called
an integrated circuit
(iii) No components of an IC are seen to project above
the surface of the chip. This is because all the
components are formed within the chip.
6.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Integrated Circuits

Integrated circuits free the equipment designer from the

need to construct circuits with individual discrete
components such as transistors, diodes and resistors. With
the exception of a few very simple circuits, the availability of
a large number of low-cost integrated circuits have largely
rendered discrete circuitry obsolete. It is, therefore, desirable
to mention the significant advantages of integrated circuits
over discrete circuits. However, integrated circuits have some
disadvantages and continuous efforts are on to overcome
them.
Advantages : Integrated circuits possess the following
advantages over discrete circuits :
(i) Increased reliability due to lesser number of
connections.
(ii) Extremely small size due to the fabrication of various
circuit elements in a single chip of semi-conductor
material.
(iii) Lesser weight and *space requirement due to
miniaturized circuit.

*Typically, this is about 10% of the space required by

comparable discrete assembly.
(iv) Low power requirements.
(v) Greater ability to operate at extreme values of
temperature.
(vi) Low cost because of simultaneous production of
hundreds of alike circuits on a small semiconductor wafer.
(vii) The circuit lay out is greatly simplified because
integrated circuits are constrained to use minimum number
of external connections.
Disadvantages : The disadvantages of integrated circuits are :
(i) If any component in an IC goes out of order, the whole IC
has to be replaced by the new one.
(ii) In an IC, it is neither convenient nor economical to
fabricate capacitances exceeding 30 pF. Therefore, for high
values of capacitance, discrete components exterior to IC chip
are connected.
(iii) It is not possible to fabricate inductors and transformers
on the surface of semi-conductor chip. Therefore, these
components are connected exterior to the semi-conductor
chip.
(iv) It is not possible to produce high power ICs (greater than
10 W).
(v) There is a lack of flexibility in an IC i.e., it is generally not
possible to modify the parameters within which an integrated
circuit will operate.
6.3 IC Classifications
Four basic types of constructions are employed in the
manufacture of integrated circuits, namely ; (i) mono-
lithic (ii) thin-film (iii) thick-film (iv) hybrid.
Monolithic ICs are by far the most common type used
in practice. Therefore, in this lecture we shall confine
our attention to the construction of this type of ICs
only. It may be worthwhile to mention here that
regardless of the type of method used to fabricate
active and passive components, the basic
characteristics and circuit operation of an IC are the
same as for any of their counterparts in a similar
circuit using separate circuit components.
6.4 Making Monolithic IC
A monolithic IC is one in which all circuit components and
their inter-connections are formed on a single thin wafer
called the substrate.
The word monolithic is from Greek and means “one stone.”
The word is appropriate because all the components are
part of one chip. Although we are mainly interested in
using ICs, yet it is profitable to know something about their
fabrication. The basic production processes for the
monolithic ICs are as follow :
(i) p-Substrate. This is the first step in the making of an IC.
A cylindrical p-type *silicon crystal is grown having typical
dimensions 25 cm long and 2.5 cm diameter [See Fig. 6.2
(i)]. The crystal is then cut by a diamond saw into many thin
wafers like Fig. 6.2 (ii), the typical thickness of the wafer
being 200 µm. One side of wafer is polished to get rid of
surface imperfections. This wafer is called the substrate.
The ICs are produced on this wafer
(ii) Epitaxial n layer. The next step is to put the wafers in a
diffusion furnace. A gas mixture of silicon atoms and
pentavalent atoms is passed over the wafers. This forms a
thin layer of n-type semi-conductor on the heated surface
of substrate [See Fig. 6.3 (i) ]. This thin layer is called the
*epitaxial layer and is about 10 µm thick. It is in this layer
that the whole integrated circuit is formed.
(iii) Insulating layer. In order to prevent the
contamination of the epitaxial layer, a thin SiO2 layer
about 1µm thick is deposited over the entire surface as
shown in Fig. 6.3 (ii). This is achieved by passing pure
oxygen over the epitaxial layer. The oxygen atoms
combine with silicon atoms to form a layer of silicon
dioxide (SiO2).
(iv) Producing components. By the process of **diffusion,
appropriate materials are added to the substrate at
specific locations to produce diodes, transistors, resistors
and capacitors. The production of these components on
the wafer is discussed in sub-topic 6.5.
(v) Etching. Before any impurity is added to the substrate,
the oxide layer (i.e. SiO2 layer) is etched. The process of
etching exposes the epitaxial layer and permits the
production of desired components. The terminals are
processed by etching the oxide layer at the desired
locations.
(vi) Chips. In practice, the wafer shown in Fig. 6.4 is
divided into a large number of areas. Each of these areas
will be a separate chip. The manufacturer produces
hundreds of alike ICs on the wafer over each area. To
separate the individual ICs, the wafer is divided into small
chips by a process similar to glass cutting. This is
illustrated in Fig. 6.4. It may be seen that hundreds of
alike ICs can be produced from a small wafer. This
simultaneous mass production is the reason for the low
After the chip is cut, it is bonded to its mounting and
connections are made between the IC and external leads.
The IC is then encapsulated to prevent it from becoming
contaminated by the surrounding atmosphere.
6.5 Fabrication of Components on Monolithic IC
The notable feature of an IC is that it comprises a number
of circuit elements inseparably associated in a single small
package to perform a complete electronic function. This
differs from discrete assembly where separately
manufactured components are joined by wires. We shall
now see how various circuit elements (e.g. diodes,
transistors, resistors etc.) can be constructed in an IC
form.
(i) Diodes. One or more diodes are formed by diffusing one
or more small n-type deposits at appropriate locations on
the substrate. Fig. 6.5 shows how a diode is formed on a
portion of substrate of a monolithic IC. Part of SiO2 layer is
etched off, exposing the epitaxial layer as shown in Fig. 6.5
(i). The wafer is then put into a furnace and trivalent atoms
are diffused into the epitaxial layer. The trivalent atoms
change the exposed epitaxial layer from n-type semi-
conductor to p-type. Thus we get an island of n-type
material under the SiO2 layer as shown in Fig. 6.5(ii).
Next pure oxygen is passed over the wafer to form a
complete SiO2 layer as shown in Fig. 6.5 (iii). A hole is then
etched at the centre of this layer ; thus exposing the n-
epitaxial layer [See Fig. 6.5 (iv)]. This hole in SiO2 layer is
called a window. Now we pass trivalent atoms through the
window. The trivalent atoms diffuse into the epitaxial layer
to form an island of p-type material as shown in Fig. 6.5 (v).
The SiO2 layer is again formed on the wafer by blowing pure
oxygen over the wafer [See Fig. 6.5 (vi)]. Thus a p-n junction
diode is formed on the substrate.
The last step is to attach the terminals. For this purpose, we
etch the SiO2 layer at the desired locations as shown in Fig
6.6 (i). By depositing metal at these locations, we make
electrical contact with the anode and cathode of the
integrated diode. Fig. 6.6 (ii) shows the electrical circuit of
the diode.
(ii) Transistors. Transistors are formed by using the same
principle as for diodes. Fig. 6.7 shows how a transistor is
formed on a portion of the substrate of a monolithic IC. For
this purpose, the steps used for fabricating the diode are
carried out up to the point where p island has been formed
and sealed off [See Fig. 6.5 (vi) above]. This Fig. is repeated
as Fig. 6.7 (i) and shall be taken as the starting point in order
to avoid repetition.
A window is now formed at the centre of SiO2 layer, thus
exposing the p-epitaxial layer as shown in Fig. 6.7(ii). Then
we pass pentavalent atoms through the window. The
pentavalent atoms diffuse into the epitaxial layer to form an
island of n-type material as shown in Fig. 6.7 (iii). The SiO2
layer is re-formed over the wafer by passing pure oxygen
[See Fig. 6.7 (iv)]. The terminals are processed by etching the
SiO2 layer at appropriate locations and depositing the metal
at these locations as shown in Fig. 6.7 (v). In this way, we get
the integrated transistor. Fig. 6.7 (vi) shows the electrical
circuit of a transistor.
(iii) Resistors. Fig. 6.8 shows how a resistor is formed on a
portion of the substrate of a monolithic IC. This figure is
repeated as Fig. 6.8 (i) and shall be taken as the starting point.
A window is now formed at the centre of SiO2 layer, thus
exposing the n-epitaxial layer as shown in Fig. 6.8 (ii). Then
we diffuse a p-type material into the n-type area as shown in
Fig. 6.8 (iii). The SiO2 layer is re-formed over the wafer by
passing pure oxygen [See Fig. 6.8 (iv)]. The terminals are
processed by etching SiO2 layer at two points above the p
island and depositing the metal at these locations [See Fig.
6.8 (v)]. In this way, we get an integrated resistor. Fig. 6.8 (vi)
shows the electrical circuit of a resistor.
The value of resistor is determined by the material, its
length and area of cross-section. The high-resistance
resistors are long and narrow while low-resistance resistors
are short and of greater cross-section.
(iv) Capacitors. Fig. 6.9 shows the process of fabricating a
capacitor in the monolithic IC. The first step is to diffuse an
n-type material into the substrate which forms one plate
of the capacitor as shown in Fig. 6.9 (i). Then SiO2 layer is
re-formed over the wafer by passing pure oxygen as
shown in Fig. 6.9 (ii). The SiO2 layer formed acts as the
dielectric of the capacitor. The oxide layer is etched and
terminal 1 is added as shown in Fig. 6.9 (iii). Next a large
(compared to the electrode at terminal 1) metallic
electrode is deposited on the SiO2 layer and forms the
second plate of the capacitor. The oxide layer is etched
and terminal 2 is added. This gives an integrated capacitor.
The value of capacitor formed depends upon the dielectric
constant of SiO2 layer, thickness of SiO2 layer and the area
of cross-section of the smaller of the two electrodes.
6.6 Simple Monolithic ICs
It has been seen above that individual components can be
integrated in a monolithic IC. We shall now see how an
electronic circuit comprising different components is
produced in an IC form. The key point to keep in mind is
that regardless of the complexity of the circuit, it is mainly
a process of etching windows, forming p and n islands, and
connecting the integrated components
(i) Two-diode IC. Fig.610 (i) shows a two-diode IC with a
common anode whereas Fig. 6.10 (ii) shows a two-diode IC
with individual anode.
Two points are worth noting. Firstly, any circuit [ like the one
shown in Fig 6.10 (i) or Fig 6.10 (ii)] is not integrated
individually ; rather hundreds of alike circuits are
simultaneously fabricated on a wafer. The wafer is then cut
into chips so that each chip area represents one circuit. This
is the key factor for low cost of ICs and is exerting
considerable influence on electronics engineers to switch
over to IC technology. Secondly, ICs are usually not as
simple as shown in Fig. 6.10. In fact, actual ICs contain a
large number of components.
(ii) Another simple IC. Fig.6.11 shows an IC consisting of a
capacitor, resistor, diode and transistor connected in series.
The interconnection of the circuit elements is accomplished
by extending the metallic deposits from terminal to terminal
of adjacent components.

It is interesting to see that p substrate isolates the integrated

components from each other. Thus referring to Fig. 6.11,
depletion layers exist between p substrate and the four n
islands touching it. As the depletion layers have virtually no
current carriers, therefore, the integrated components are
insulated from each other.
6.7 IC Packings
In order to protect ICs from external environment and to
provide mechanical protection, various forms of
encapsulation are used for integrated circuits. Just as
with semi-conductor devices, IC packages are of two
types viz.
(i) hermatic (metal or ceramic with glass)
(ii) non-hermatic (plastics)
Plastics are cheaper than hermatic but are still not
regarded as satisfactory in extremes of temperature and
humidity. Although ICs appeared in the market several
years ago, yet the standardisation of packages started
only in the recent years. The three most popular types of
IC packages are shown in Fig. 6.12.
(i) Fig. 6.12 (i) shows TO-5 package* which resembles a
small signal transistor in both appearance and size but
differs in that it has either 8, 10 or 12 pigtail-type leads.
The close leads spacing and the difficulty of removal from
a printed circuit board has diminished the popularity of
this package with the users. (ii) Fig. 6.12 (ii) shows a flat
pack container with 14 leads, seven on each side. (iii) Fig.
6.12 (iii) shows the dual-in-line (DIL) pack in 14-lead
version. The 14-pin DIL is the most popular form and has
seven connecting pairs per side. The pairs of pins of this
pack are in line with one another, the pins being 2.5 mm
apart to allow IC to be fitted directly into the standard
printed circuit boards
6.8 IC Symbols
In general, no standard symbols exist for ICs. Often the
circuit diagram merely shows a block with numbered
terminals. However, sometimes standard symbols are used
for operational amplifiers or digital logic gates. Some of the
symbols used with ICs are shown below Fig. 6.13 shows
the symbol of an IC r-f amplifier containing 3 transistors, 3
resistors and 8 terminals. Similarly, Fig. 6.14 shows an IC
audio amplifier which contain 6 transistors, 2 diodes, 17
resistors and has 12 terminals.
6.9 Scale of Integration
An IC chip may contain as large as 100,000 semiconductor
devices or other components. The relative number of these
components within the chip is given by referring to its scale
of integration. The following terminology is commonly
used.

Scale of Integration Abbreviation Number of components

Small SSI 1 to 20
Medium MSI 20 To 100
Large LSI 100 to 1000
Very Large VLSI 1000 to 10,000
Super Large SLSI 10,000 to 100, 000