COMPS 260

Computer Architecture and

Operating System

Unit 4 – Input, Output and Computer

Peripherals
Input and Output - Devices
 I/O (input and output) is an important
mechanism for a computer to handle tasks in
our world.
 Different IO devices : Keyboards, Monitors,
Printers, Mice, Scanner…
 Different IO devices have different
characteristics – speeds, data rate, data
transfer types….
 IO modules (IO controllers) are used for
controlling the IO devices.
Input and Output - Buses
 IO devices are connected with the CPU by
buses
 Different types of buses for different types of
IO devices – ISA, PCI, PCIe, SCSI, ATA,
SATA, AGP, USB, FIREWIRE (IEEE1394)….
Modes of IO – Synchronous IO
 control does not return to the user program
until IO operation is completed.
1. CPU issues an IO request to IO module
2. Upon receiving the request, IO module
instruct the IO device to carry out the
action.
3. CPU suspends its operation and wait in a
loop for the IO device to complete the
action.
4. When IO completes, CPU either detects
or being notified about the status.
5. CPU continues with the next instruction.
Modes of IO – Asynchronous IO
 Control returns to the user program after initiating the
IO request. The user program either detects or is
notified when IO is completed.
1. CPU issues an IO request to IO module
2. Upon receiving the request, IO module
instruct the IO device to carry out the
action.
3. CPU carry on its other (possible) jobs
while IO is carried out..
4. During the course, CPU either
periodically detects or being notified
about the status.
5. CPU continues with the next instruction.
Modes of IO
 Synchronous IO cannot make use of the CPU
efficiently. At most, 1 IO operation can be
carried out at 1 time. No simultaneous IO can
be done.
 Asynchronous IO supports concurrent IO
operations. It is not easy to write program to
carried out asynchronous IOs, especially in
handling exceptions.
3 essential types of IO operations
 Programmed IO (PIO)
 CPU is responsible for moving each block of
data.
 Inefficient.
3 essential types of IO operations
 Interrupt driven IO
 Interrupt is a signal sent to the CPU by some
hardwares, signifying the occurrence of an event.
 Whenever CPU receives an interrupt signal, it
suspends its ongoing process, and performs to the
interrupt service routine, whose address is recorded in
the interrupt vector while system boots up.
 After completion of the interrupt service routine, CPU
returns to the point that it was interrupted and
continues its ongoing job.
3 essential types of IO operations
 Interrupt driven IO
3 essential types of IO operations
 Interrupt driven IO
 CPU sends an IO request to IO module. Then
it carries on its ongoing jobs.
 IO modules once received the request and
other relevant information, it performs the IO
action.
 After completion, IO module sends an interrupt
signal to CPU as notification.
 Once CPU got the notification, it handles the
result accordingly.
3 essential types of IO operations
Direct Memory Access (DMA)
 A mechanism makes use of interrupt
mechanism to achieve high speed data
transfer.
 DMA doesn’t require CPU’s intervention after
setting up the data transfer. CPU can carry out
other jobs in the course. This is also called
“cycle stealing”.
 After data transfer is completed, an interrupt
signal is sent to the CPU as notification.
3 essential types of IO operations
Direct Memory Access (DMA)
 3 basic conditions that must exist in order to
carry out DMA:
 IO module must be able to read/read memory
independently.
 There must be a way to connect the IO module
and the memory directly.
 There must be a way to resolve the conflict while
multiple components want to gain access to
memory.
3 essential types of IO operations
Direct Memory Access (DMA)
 4 pieces of information are required for setting
up the action of DMA:
 Starting address of the memory
 Starting address in the IO device
 Size of data needs to be moved
 Direction of movement.
Storage Devices
Flash Memory
 Also known as solid state memory.
 No moving parts, hence, it is fast compared
with disks.
 Usually smaller in size than disks. So, good
for portable devices.
Magnetic Disk
Magnetic Disk
 2 Different arrangement of sectors:
 Constant Angular Velocity (CAV)
 Constant Linear Velocity (CLV)
Magnetic Disk – Performance Measurement.

 Seek Time – The time it takes for the disk

head to move to a designated track.
Magnetic Disk – Performance Measurement.

 Rotational Delay (Latency) – The time it takes

for a specific sector spins right under the disk
head, once it is on the required track.
Magnetic Disk – Performance Measurement.

 Data Transfer Time – The time that is

required to read the block of data from, or
write to, the sector.
Magnetic Disk – Performance Measurement.
 Rotational Delay – it is defined by the motor that spins the disks.
This is also cannot be adjusted after the hard disk reaches the
market. That’s also why consumers always seek for higher
speed hard disks in order to get a higher performance.
 The best case rotational delay is 0 sec, which is the case if
the sector is right under the disk head when the data in the
sector is needed.
 The worst case rotational delay is the time it takes to spin
the disk 1 complete revolution, which is when the (starting
location of) sector has just left the disk head.
 In a long run, the average rotational delay is the time it takes
to spin the disk 0.5 revolution.
 Data Transfer time – it is also defined by the motor speed
because, while the disk is spinning, the controller must be able
to read all the data that a sector contains while it is still under
the disk head. The job cannot be split into 2 separate goes.
Magnetic Disk – Performance Measurement.

 Seek Time – it is the time it takes to move the

disk head to a specific track. The is defined
by the speed of the step motor, which cannot
be adjusted after the hard disk reaches the
market.
 Even this is so, we can still improve the
performance of seek time by re-arranging the
services to the disk tasks in order to get a
smaller total (or average) seek time. This will
be covered in later unit.
Optical Disk
 Data is burnt onto the reflective layer on the
disk, which then forms pits and lands.
 Laser can be reflected when shone to lands,
but not on pits.
 There are different variations of optical disks :
 CD, DVD, BD
 Some can be further classified according to
their differences in storage capacities.
 It is also common to classify them according to
their ability of being written, re-written.
Display
 Video display has been evolving a lot in the
past decades.
 CRT
 monochrome, colour
 Interlaced scanning, progressive scanning
 LCD / LED
 Flat Panel
Display
 Parameters that define the quality of a display
 Size – measured diagonally
 Resolution – number of pixels that can be shown
across the length and breadth of the viewing area
 Pixel Pitch – the minimum distance between 2 adjacent
pixels in order to make them distinguishable.
 Aspect Ratio – The ratio of the breadth and length of
the viewing area.
 Colour depth – the amount of different colours that can
be shown.
 Brightness – How bright a pixel can be illuminated.
 Contrast Ratio – The ratio of the max luminance to the
minimum luminance.
Printer
 Dot matrix
 Using colour ribbon to transfer marks onto the
paper
 Slow, because of the mechanical movement of
the print head
 Noisy, because of the noise generated by the
impact of pins and the paper
 Difficult to produce colour printout.
 Good for the need of carbon transfer copies.
Printer
 Ink jet
 Colour ink droplets are injected to the paper to
form the marks.
 Slow, because of the mechanical movement of
the print head.
 Quiet.
 Good to produce colourful printout.
 Some inks are not waterproof.
 Cannot support carbon transfer copies.
Printer
 Laser
 Toner is transfer to the paper by electrostaticity.
 Fast, because no mechanical movement.
 Quiet.
 Sharp image.
 Long lasting printout.
 Expensive consumables, especially for colour printout.
 Most toners are waterproof.
 Cannot support carbon transfer copies.
Printer
 Heat sublimation
 Colour wax film is transferred to the paper by
heat.
 Quiet.
 High quality image.
 Good for photo printout.
 Expensive consumables, especially for colour
printout.
Scanner
 Sheet fed type and Flat bed type.
 Quality defined by the resolution of the scans.
 Editable text can be obtained by OCR
softwares.