ANATOMY AND

PHYSIOLOGY

THE DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM
EACC 2022
Learning objectives

At the end of this chapter, students will be able to:

Identify the organs of the alimentary canal from

proximal to distal, and briefly state their function
Identify the accessory digestive organs and briefly
state their function
Describe the interaction between digestive system and
other body system
Explain the process of digestion
Describe the structure and function of alimentary and
accessory organs of the digestive system along with
their functions
Differentiate mechanical and chemical digestion
Introduction

GI Tract
The digestive system is the collective name used to
describe the alimentary canal, some accessory organs
and a variety of digestive process that takes place at
different levels in the canal to prepare food eaten in the
diet for absorption.
 INTRODUCTI
ON:
The function of the digestive system is to break
down the foods, release their nutrients, and absorb
those nutrients into the body. Although the small
intestine is the workhorse of the system, where
the majority of digestion occurs, and where most
of the released nutrients are absorbed into the
blood or lymph, each of the digestive system
organs makes a vital contribution to this process.
 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM AND OTHER BODY SYSTEMS
Table 1. Contribution of Other Body Systems to the Digestive System

Body
Benefits received by the digestive system
system

Cardiovascu Blood supplies digestive organs with oxygen and processed

lar nutrients

Endocrine hormones help regulate secretion in digestive glands

Endocrine
and accessory organs

Integumenta Skin helps protect digestive organs and synthesizes vitamin D

ry for calcium absorption
 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM AND OTHER BODY SYSTEMS
Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue and other lymphatic tissue
Lymphatic defend against entry of pathogens; lacteals absorb lipids; and
lymphatic vessels transport lipids to bloodstream

Muscular Skeletal muscles support and protect abdominal organs

Sensory and motor neurons help regulate secretions and

Nervous
muscle contractions in the digestive tract

Respiratory organs provide oxygen and remove carbon

Respiratory
dioxide

Skeletal Bones help protect and support digestive organs

Kidneys convert vitamin D into its active form, allowing

Urinary
calcium absorption in the small intestine
THE DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM
 The digestive tract is more than 10 meters (30
feet) long from one end to the other.
 It is continuous starting at the mouth, passing

through the pharynx, oesophagus (25 cm long) ,

the stomach, the small and large intestine and
ending in the rectum (12.5-15 cm long) & finally
into the anus.
HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
 DIGESTION
SYSTEM: PROCESS AND
REGULATION

The digestive system uses mechanical and chemical

activities to break food down into absorbable
substances during its journey through the digestive
system.
Table 1 provides an overview of the basic functions of
the digestive organs.
DIGESTION

 INGESTION

 DIGESTION

 ABSORPTION

 ELIMINATION
The digestive processes
 INGESTI
It involves ON
 Placing the food into the mouth.

 Chewing the food into smaller pieces

(mastication).
 Moistening of the food with salivary

secretion.
 Swallowing the food (deglutition).
 DIGESTIO
 During
N
digestion, food is broken down into small
particles by the grinding action of the gastro-
intestinal tract (GIT) and then degraded by the
digestive enzyme into usable nutrients.
ABSORPTI
ON  During

absorption,
nutrients,
water and
electrolytes
are
transported
from the
GIT to the
circulation.
ELIMINATION
 Food substances that
have been eaten but
cannot be digested and
absorbed are excreted
from the alimentary
canal as feces by the
process of defecation.
Summary of digestive organs function

Table 1. Functions of the Digestive Organs

Other
Organ Major functions
functions

Moistens and
dissolves food,
Ingests food allowing one
Chews and mixes food to taste it
Begins chemical breakdown of Cleans and
Mouth carbohydrates lubricates the
Moves food into the pharynx teeth and oral
Begins breakdown of lipids via cavity
lingual lipase Has some
antimicrobial
activity
Summary of digestive organs function

Other
Organ Major Activities
activities

Lubricates food
Pharyn Propels food from the oral cavity to
and
x the esophagus
passageways
Lubricates food
Esopha
Propels food to the stomach and
gus
passageways
Summary of digestive organs function

Mixes and churns food with gastric Stimulates

juices to form chyme protein-
Begins chemical breakdown of digesting
proteins enzymesSecrete
Releases food into the duodenum s intrinsic factor
Stomach
as chyme required for
Absorbs some fat-soluble vitamin B12
substances (for example, alcohol,
aspirin) absorption in
Possesses antimicrobial functions small intestine
Summary of digestive organs function

Mixes chyme with digestive juices

Propels food at a rate slow enough for
digestion and absorption
Absorbs breakdown products of Provides optimal
Small
carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic medium for
intestine
acids, along with vitamins, minerals, and enzymatic activity
water
Performs physical digestion via
segmentation

Bicarbonate-rich
Liver: produces bile salts, which emulsify
pancreatic juices
lipids, aiding their digestion and absorption
help neutralize
Accessory Gallbladder: stores, concentrates, and
acidic chyme and
organs releases bile
provide optimal
Pancreas: produces digestive enzymes and
environment for
bicarbonate
enzymatic activity
Summary of digestive organs function

Food residue is
concentrated and
Further breaks down food residuesAbsorbs
temporarily stored
most residual water, electrolytes, and
Large prior to
vitamins produced by enteric
intestine defecationMucus
bacteriaPropels feces toward
eases passage of
rectumEliminates feces
feces through
colon
ORGANS OF
ALIMENTARY TRACT
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
 Mouth

 Pharynx

 Esophagus

 Stomach

 Small intestine
 Large intestine

 Rectum and anal

canal
ACCESSORY ORGANS
OF DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM  Three pairs of

salivary
gland
 The pancreas

 The liver &

biliary tract.
STRUCTURE OF
ALIMENTAY CANAL
The walls of the alimentary tract are formed by
4 layers of tissues.
 1) ADVENTITIA OR
SEROSA
 Thisis the outer most layer and in the thorax it
consists of losse fibrous tissue and in the
abdomen the organs are covered by a serous
membrane (serose) called peritoneum.
PERITONEU
M  It is the largest
serous membrane of
the body. It has two
layers
 Parietal layer- which
lines the abdominal
valve
 Visceral layer- it
cover the
organs within
the abdominal
and pelvic
cavities.
 2. MUSCLE
 LAYER
It consist of two layer of
smooth (voluntary)muscle
 Contraction and relaxation of
these muscle layers occur in
waves, which push the
contents of the tract onwards.
 This type of contraction of
smooth muscle is called
“peristalsis”.
 Onward movement of the
content of the tract is
controlled at various points by
sphincters, which are
thickened rings of circular
muscle contraction of
sphincter regulates forward
movement and prevent the
backflow in the tract.
3. Sub mucosa:
This layer consists of loose connective tissue,
blood vessels and lymphatics.
4. MUCOSAL
It consists :
LAYER of three layers of tissues.
 Mucus membrane
 Lamina propria

 Muscularis mucosa

o Mucus membrane:
It has three main function- protection, secretion,
and absorption.
MUCOSAL
LAYER:
 Lamina propria: it consisting of loose
connective tissue, which supports the blood
vessels that nourish the inner epithelial layer,
and varying amounts of lymphoid tissue that
has a protective function.

 Muscularis mucosa: it is a thin

outer layer of smooth muscles that provides
involutions of the mucosa layer, gastric glands,
and villi.
THE WALLS OF THE ALIMENTARY TRACT
MOUTH
(ORAL
 The mouth or oral cavity is lined by mucous
CAVITY)
membrane, consisting of stratified squamous
epithelium containing mucus secreting glands.
 BOUNDARIES OF
ORAL CAVITY
 Anteriorly : by lips
 Posteriorly : it is
continuous with
oropharynx
 Laterally: by muscles of
the cheeks
 Superiorly: by bony
hard palate & muscles of
soft palate
 Inferiorly: by soft tissue
of floor, mouth &
tongue.
 TOUNGUE

 It is a voluntary muscular structure.

 It is attached by its base to the hyoid bone &
by frenulum to the floor of the mouth.
 Its superior surface consists of stratified squamous
epithelium, with little projection called as
papillae, containing taste buds.
 FUNCTIONS OF
TOUNGE

The term plays an important role in

 chewing ( mastication),
 swallowing( deglutition),
 speech &
 taste.
 TEETH
The teeth are embedded in sockets of the mandible and maxilla.
Each person has two sets of teeth, the temporary &
permanent teeth.
 TEMPORARY (DECIDUOUS) - They are 20 in number,

10 in each jaw. They begin to erupt at the age of six months

& all are present by the age of 24 months.
Shapes- molars 2/2, premolars, canine 1/1, incisors 2/2.
 TEETH
 PERMANENT TEETH- They are 32 in
number & begin to replace the temporary teeth
in the sixth year of age. It is usually
completed by the 24th year.
 Shapes- molars 3/3, premolars 2/2, canine 1/1,

incisors 2/2.
FUNCTIONS OF
TEETH:
 Incisor and canine teeth
have cutting surface & are
used for biting off pieces
of foods.
 Whereas the premolar &

molar have broad & flat

surfaces & are used for
chewing food.
STRUCTURE OF
TOOTH  The shape of the
different teeth vary,
the structure is the
same & consists of
 The crown- the part

that protrudes from the

gum.
 The root- the part

embedded in the bone.

 The neck- slightly

narrowed region
where the crown
merges with the root.
 SALIVARY
GLAND
Salivary gland releases their secretion into ducts that
lead into the mouth.
There are 3 main pairs
 Parotid gland

 The submandibular glands

 Sublingual glands
a) PAROTID GLAND
 These are situated one on each side of the face just
below the external acoustic meatus. Each gland has a
parotid duct opening into the mouth at the level of the
second upper molar tooth.
B) SUBMANDIBULAR GLAND
 These lie one on each side of the face under the angle
of the jaw. The two submandibular ducts open on the
floor of the mouth, one on each side of the frenulum of
the tongue.
C) SUBLINGUAL
GLANDS:
 These glands lie under the mucous membrane of the
floor of the mouth in front of the sub-mandibular glands.
These have numerous small ducts that open into the
floor of the mouth.
 STRUCTURE OF THE
SALIVARY GLANDS:
The glands are all surrounded
by the fibrous capsule.
 They consist of a number of
lobules made up of small acini
lined with secretory cell.
 The secretion are poured into
ductiles that join upto form
larger ducts leading into the
mouth.
BLOOD SUPPLY:
Arterial supply is by various
branches from the external
carotid artery and venous
drainage is into the external
jugular veins.
COMPOSITON OF
SALIVA:
It about 1.5 liters of saliva is produced daily and it
consist of
 Water

 mineral salts

 An enzyme- salivary amylase

 Mucous

 Lysozyme

 Immunoglobulins

 Blood clotting factors

 FUNCTIONS OF
SALIVA:
 Chemical digestion of polysaccharides :
Saliva contains the enzyme amylase that
begins the breakdown of complex sugar,
including starch, reducing them to the
disaccharides maltose. The optimum pH for
the action of salivary amylase is 6.8.

salivary pH ranges from 5.8 -7.4
depending upon the rate of flow.
 Lubrication of food: Dry food entering the
mouth is moistened and lubricated by saliva
before it can be made into a bolus ready for
swallowing.
 FUNCTIONS OF
SALIVA:
 Cleaning and lubricating: an adequate flow of saliva is
necessary to clean the mouth and to keep it soft, moist
and pliable. It help to prevent damage to the mucous
memvrane by rough or abrasive food.
 Taste: The taste buds are stimulated only by chemical

substances in solution & therefore dry fruits only

stimulated the sense of taste after through mixing
with saliva.
 PHARYN

X:
Pharynx is divided for descriptive purpose into three
parts, the nasopharynx, oropharynx and laryngopharynx.
The nasopharynx is important in respiration.
 The oropharynx & laryngopharynx are passage common

to both the respiratory and the digestive system. Food

passes from the oral cavity into the pharynx then to the
esophagus below, with which it is continuous.
BLOOD SUPPLY OF
PHARYNX
 The blood supply to the pharynx is by several
branches of the facial arteries. The venous
drainage is into the facial veins and internal
jugular veins.
NERVE SUPPLY:
 This is from the pharyngeal plexus and consist of

parasympathetic and sympathetic nerve.

Parasympathetic supply is mainly by the
glossopharyngeal and vagous nerves and
sympathetic from the cervical ganglia.
 OESOPHAGU
S:

 The oesophagus is about 25 cm long and about 2cm in

diameter and lies in the median plane in the thorax in
front of the vertebral column behind the trachea and the
heart
 STRUCTURE OF
OESOPHAGUS:
 There are four layers of tissue .As the

oesophagus is almost entirely in the thorax the

outer covering ,the adventitia ,consist of elastic
fibrous tissue that attaches the oesophagus to the
surrounding structure .

 The proximal third is lined by stratified

squamous epithelium and distal third by
columnar epithelium .the middle third is lined by
a mixture of the two.
 BLOOD SUPPLY

Arterial- The thoracic region is supplied

mainly by the paired oesophagus
arteries
,branches from the thoracic aorta. The abdominal
region is supplied by branches from the inferior
phrenic arteries and the left gastric branches of
the celiac artery.
 VENOUS
DRAINAGE
 From the thoracic region venous drainages is in
to the azygos and hemiazygos vein. There is
a venous plexus at the distal end that links the
upward and downward venous drainages,
the general and portal circulation.
 STOMAC
H
 The stomach is J- shaped dilated portion of the

alimentary tract situated in the epigastric

,umbilical and left hypochondriac regions of the
abdominal cavity.
STRUCTURE OF THE
STOMACH
 The stomach is
continuous with the
oesophagus at the
cardiac sphincter and
with the duodenum
at the pyloric
sphincter .
 It has two curvatures
,the lesser curvature is
short
 Just before the pyloric
sphincter it curve
upwards to complete
the J- shape .
 STRUCTURE OF THE
STOMACH
 Where
the oesophagus join the stomach the
anterior region angles acutely upwards ,curves
downwards forming the greater curvature and
then slightly upwards the pyloric sphincters.
 The stomach is divided in to three regions :the

fundus ,the body and the antrum. At the distal

end of the pyloric antrum is the pyloric
sphincter, is relaxed and open ,and when the
stomach contains food the sphincter is closed.
 ORGANS ASSOCIATED WITH
THE STOMACH

 Anteriorly - left lobe of liver and anterior

abdominal wall.
 Posteriorly – abdominal aorta, pancreas
,spleen,left kidney and adrenal glands.
ORGANS ASSOCIATED WITH THE
STOMACH
 Superiorly- diaphragm, oesophagus and left lobe of
liver.
 Inferiorly- transverse colon and small intestine
 To the left- diaphragm and spleen.

 To the right- liver and duodenum.

 WALLS OF THE
STOMACH
The four layers of tissue that comprise the basic
structure of the alimentary canal are found
in the stomach but with some modifications.
 MUSCLES LAYER-
This consists of
three layers of
smooth muscles
fibers

An outer layer
of longitudinal
fibers
 A middle layer of

circular fibers.

An inner layer
of oblique
fibers.
 BLOOD
SUPPLY
Arterial supply to the stomach is by the left
gastric artery , and branch of the coeliac
artery
,the rights gastric artery and the gastroepiploic
arteries. Venous drainages is through veins of
corresponding names into the portal veins .
FUNCTIONS OF THE
STOMACH
These includes
 Temporary storage allowing time for the digestive
enzyme, pepsin, to act.
 Enzyme digestion- pepsin convert protein to

peptides .
 Mechanical breakdown- the three smooth muscle layer

able the stomach to act as a churn, gastric juice is

added and the contents are liquefied to chyme.
Motility & secretion are increased by parasympathetic
nerve stimulation.
 FUNCTIONS OF THE
STOMACH
 Limited absorption of water, alcohol & some
lipid soluble drugs.
 Known, specific defense against microbes-

provided by hydrochloride acid into

gastric juice.
 Production & secretion for intrinsic factor

needed for absorption of vitamin b12 in the

terminal ileum.
 Regulation of the passage of gastric contents into

the duodenum.
 Secretion of the gastric hormones .
 SMALL
 INTESTINE
The small intestine can be divided into 3 major regions:
 The duodenum is the first section of intestine that
connects to the pyloric sphincter of the stomach. It is
the shortest region of the small intestine, measuring
only about 10 inches in length.
 SMALL
INTESTINE
 The jejunum is the middle section of the small
intestine that serves as the primary site of
nutrient absorption. It measures around 3 feet in
length.
 The ileum is the final section of the small

intestine that empties into the large intestine via

the ileocecal sphincter. The ileum is about 6 feet
long and completes the absorption of nutrients
that were missed in the jejunum.
 SMALL INTESTINE
 The small intestine (or small bowel) is the part
of the gastrointestinal tract.
 The small intestine is a long, highly convoluted

tube in the digestive system that absorbs about

90% of the nutrients from the food eaten.

It is given the name “small intestine” because
it is only 1 inch in diameter, making it less than
half the diameter of the large intestine.
 The small intestine is, however, about twice the

length of the large intestine and usually measures

about 10 feet in length.
 THE SMALL
INTESTINE
It is made up of four layers of tissue

Mucosa -The mucosa forms the inner layer of

epithelial tissue and is specialized for the
absorption of nutrients from chyme.

Sub mucosa layer -Deep to the mucosa
is the sub mucosa layer that provides
blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and
nerves to support the mucosa on the
surface.
LAYERS OF SMALL
INTESTINE
 Muscularis layer -Several layers of smooth
muscle tissue form the muscularis layer that
contracts and moves the small intestines.


Serosa- it forms the outermost layer of
epithelial tissue that is continuous with the
mesentery and surrounds the intestines.
FUNCION OF SMALL
Onward
INTESTINE
1. movement of its contents
by peristalsis, which is increased by
parasympathetic stimulation.
2.A secretion of intestinal juice, also increase
by parasympathetic stimulation.
3.Completion of chemical digestion of
carbohydrate, protein and fat in the
electrolytes of the villi.
4.Secretion of the hormones cholesystokinin
(CCK) .
5. Absorption of nutrients.
LARGE
INTSTINE It consists of the
following parts:
 1. Caecum
 2. The ascending
colon
 3. The transverse
colon
 4. The descending
colon
 5. The pelvic or
sigmoid colon
 6. The Rectum
 7. The anal canal
 LARGE INTSTINE
 Large intestine, posterior section of the intestine,
consisting typically of four regions:
the cecum, colon, rectum, and anus.
 The large intestine is wider and shorter than

the small intestine(approximately 1.5 meters, or

5 feet it begins in the right iliac region of
the pelvis, just at or below the waist, where it is
joined to the end of the small intestine.
 It then continues up the abdomen, across the

width of the abdominal cavity, and then down to

its endpoint at the anus.
 LARGE INTSTINE

 The caecum is the first part of the colon and is a

dilated portion which has a blind lower end and
is continuous above with the ascending colon.
Just below the junction of the two, the ileocaecal
valve opens. This valve is a sphincter and
prevents the caecal contents passing back into
the ileum.
 LARGE INTSTINE
 The Vermiform appendix is a fine tube closed at
one end, which opens out of the caecum, about 2
cm below the ileo-caecal valve. It is usually about
13 cm (5 inches) long and has the same structure as
the walls of the colon but contains more lymphoid
tissues.
 LARGE
INTSTINE
The ascending colon passes upwards from the
caecum to the level of the liver where it bends
acutely to the left of at the right colic flexure to
become the transverse colon.
The transverse colon is about 50 cm in length
and passes across the abdomen to the under
surface of the spleen. Where it forms the left
colic flexure, by bending acutely downwards to
become the descending colon.
 LARGE
 The
INTSTINE
descending colon is about 25 cm in length
and passes down the left side of the abdomen
to the inlet of the lesser pelvis, where it
becomes the sigmoid colon.
 The pelvic or sigmoid colon has an S-shaped

curve in the pelvis and it continues downwards

to become the rectum.
 The Rectum is about 12 cm long and is a

slightly dilated part of the colon. It leads from

the pelvic colon and terminates in the anal canal.
 THE ANAL CANAL

It is a short canal about 3.8 cm (11/2 inches) long in

adults and leads from the rectum to the exterior.

 There are two sphincter muscles which controls the

anus- The internal sphincter surrounds the upper
the three quarters of the canal and consists of
smooth muscle fibers.
 The external spinster and consists of striated
muscle. It is the tone of these sphincters which
keep the anal canal and the anus Closed.
 STRUCT
In structure, the largeURE
intestine consists of the same four
layers of the alimentary canal as described above with
a few modifications.
 The arrangement of the longitudinal muscle fiber is

modified in the colon. They do not form a smooth

continuous layer of tissues, but are collected into
three bands called taenia coli situated at regular
intervals round the colon.
 STRUCT
 These bands areURE
shorter than the other layers of
the large intestine and so produce a typical
puckered or sacculated appearance.
 In the sub mucous layer, there are more

lymphoid tissues than in any other part of the

alimentary canal.
 The mucus lining of the colon and the upper

part of the rectum contains large number of

goblet cells, which secrets mucus.
 FUNCTIONS OF
LARGE
Functions are: INTESTINE
1. Absorption:
 In the colon, water, mineral, salts and some

drugs are absorbed into the blood capillaries.

2. Secretion:
 Colon has only one secretion, mucin which

lubricates the feces and facilitates their passage

through the rectum and anus.
 FUNCTIONS OF LARGE
INTESTINE
3. Digestion:
 Many bacteria are present here which act on
various food residues which have not been
digested or absorbed in the small intestine.
4. Excretion:
 Excess of calcium, iron and drugs of heavy

metals, such as bismuth, are excreted from the

walls of the large intestine and mix with the
feces.
 FUNCTIONS OF
LARGE INTESTINE
 Defecation:

Defecation is the process of emptying the rectum

or the passage of feces out of the body. This is
achieved by the gastro-colic reflex, which occurs
by reflex action with the infant whereas in
adults, is under the control of the will and is
carried out in response to the desire to empty the
bowel produced by distension of the rectum
with feces.
 PANCRE
 AS
The pancreas is a pale grey gland waiting about 60gms.
It is about 12-15 cm long & is situated in the epigastric
& left hypochondriac region of the abdominal cavity. It
consist of a broad head , a body & a narrow tale. The
head lies in the curve of the duodenum, the body
behind the stomach & the tale lies in the front of the
left kidney & just reaches the spleen.
 PANCRE
AS
 The pancreas is both an endocrine and exocrine

gland. Exocrine Endocrine

Description Large number of Groups of specialised

lobes, each drained by cells (pancreatic islets/
a tiny duct islets of Langerhans)
Ducts eventually unite with no ducts
to form the pancreatic Hormones diffuse
duct, which opens into directly into the blood
the duodenum as glands have no
ducts

Function Production of Secretes hormones,

pancreatic juice insulin and glucagon
containing enzymes which are principally
that digest concerned with the
carbohydrates, regulation of blood
proteins and fats glucose levels
 LIVER
 Liveris the largest gland in the body, weighing
between 1 and 2.3 kg. It is situated in the upper
part of the abdominal cavity.
ORGANS ASSOCIATED
 Superiorly & anteriorly- diaphragm and anterior
WITH THE
abdominal wall.
LIVER
 Inferiorly- stomach, bile ducts, duodenum,
hepatic flexure of the colon, right kidney &
adrenal gland
 Posteriorly- oesophagus, inferior vanacava,

aorta, gall bladder, vertebral column &

diaphragm.
 Laterally- lower ribs & diaphragm.
ORGANS ASSOCIATED WITH
THE LIVER
 LIV
 Liver has four lobes.ER
The two most obvious are
the large right lobe & the smaller, wedge shaped
left lobe. The other two, caudate and quadrate
lobe, are area on the posterior surface.

 BLOOD SUPPLY
The hepatic artery & the portal vein take blood to
the liver. Venous return is by a variable number
of the hepatic veins that leave the posterior
surface & immediately enter the inferior vena
cava just below the diaphragm.
 STRUCTU
 The lobes of theRE
liver are made up of tiny
functional units called lobules, which are just
visible to the naked eye. Liver lobules are
formed by cubicle- shaped cells, the hepatocytes.
 Between two pairs of columns of cells are

sinusoids which containing a mixture of blood

from the tiny branches of the portal vein and
hepatic artery.

This arrangement allows the arterial blood
and portal venous blood to mix and close
contact with the liver cells.
 FUNCTIONS OF
LIVER
 Carbohydrate metabolism
 Fat metabolism

 Protein metabolism

 Breakdown of erythrocytes and defense against

microbes.
 Detoxification of drug & noxious substance-

e.g., alcohol & toxin produced by microbes.

 Intoxification of hormones.
 FUNCTIONS OF
LIVER
 Production of heat
 Secretion of bile.
 Storage- the substances include

 Glycogen

 Fat soluble vitamins- A, D, E, K.

 Iron, copper

 Some water soluble vitamins- vitamin B12.

 BILIARY TRACT

BILE DUCTS

 The right & left hepatic ducts join to form the

common hepatic duct just outside the portal
fissure.
 The hepatic ducts passage downwards for about

3 cm where it is joined at an acute angle by the

cystic duct from the gall bladder.
 The common bile duct is around 7.5 cm long and

has a diameter of about 6mm.

 STRUCT
 URE
The walls of the bile ducts have the same layers of tissue
as those described in the basic structure of the
alimentary canal. In the cystic duct the mucous
membrane lining is arranged in irregular circular folds,
which have the effect of a spiral bulb.
 GALL BLADDER
 The gall bladder is a pear-shaped sac attached to
the posterior surface of the liver by connective
tissue. It has a fundus or expended and, a body
or main part and a neck, which is continues with
the cystic duct.
 STRUCTURE OF

GALL
The gall BLADDER
bladder has the same layer of tissue as those
described in the basic structure of the alimentary
canal, with some modifications. There are three layers
 Peritoneum

 Cover only the inferior surface

 Muscle layer

 This is an additional layer of oblique muscle fiber.

 Mucus membrane

 Displays small rugae, when the gall bladder is empty that

disappears when it is distended with bile.

 FUNCTION OF
GALL BLADDER
 Reservoir for bile.
 Concentration of the bile by upto 10- or 15- fold,

by absorption of water through the walls of the

gall bladder.
 Release of stored bile.
THE MAJOR DIGESTIVE ENZYMES AND
SECRETION
 Enzymes that digest carbohydrates
ENZYME ENZYME SOURCE DIGESTIVE ACTION
SECRETION

Ptyalin Salivary glands Starch to dextrin,

maltose,glucose

Amylase Pancreas and intestinal Starch to dextrin,

mucosa maltose,
gluccose
Maltase Intestinal mucosa Dextrin to maltose and
glucose

Sucrase Intestinal mucosa Sucrose to glucose and

fructose

Lactase Intestinal mucosa Lactose to glucose and

galactose
ENZYMES THAT DIGEST PROTEINS
ENZYME ENZYME SOURCE DIGESTIVE ACTION
SECRETION
Pepsin Gastric mucosa Protein to polypeptides

Trypsin Pancreas Proteins and

polypeptides to
dipeptides and amino
acids
Aminopeptidase Intestinal mucosa Polypeptides to
dipeptides and amino
acids
Dipeptidase Intestinal mucosa Dipeptides and amino
acids
Hydrochloric acid Gastric mucosa Protein to polypeptidase
and amino acids
ENZYMES THAT DIGEST FATS
ENZYME ENZYME SOURCE DIGESTIVE ACTION
SECRETION

Pharyngeal lipase Pharynx mucosa Triglycerides to fatty

acids , diglycerides and
monoglycerides
Steapsin Gastric mucosa Triglycerides to fatty
acids , diglycerides and
monoglycerides

Pancreatic lipase Pancreas Triglycerides to fatty

acids , diglycerides and
monoglycerides

Bile liver Fat emulsification

 Assignment one
1. Describe briefery the three phases of gastric
secretion.

2. Explain how the stomach is protected from self-

digestion and why this is necessary.

3. Describe the unique anatomical features that

enable the stomach to perform digestive functions.

4. Explain how nutrients absorbed in the small

intestine pass into the general circulation.

5. Discuss different the cells found in the small

intestinal mucosa and explain how they involve in
 Review

The digestive system includes the organs of the

alimentary canal and accessory structures. The
alimentary canal forms a continuous tube that is open
to the outside environment at both ends. The organs
of the alimentary canal are the mouth, pharynx,
esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large
intestine. The accessory digestive structures include
the teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, pancreas, and
gallbladder.
 Review

The wall of the alimentary canal is composed of four

basic tissue layers: mucosa, submucosa, muscularis,
and serosa. The enteric nervous system provides
intrinsic innervation, and the autonomic nervous
system provides extrinsic innervation.
 Review

The digestive system ingests and digests food, absorbs

released nutrients, and excretes food components that
are indigestible. The six activities involved in this
process are ingestion, motility, mechanical digestion,
chemical digestion, absorption, and defecation. These
processes are regulated by neural and hormonal
mechanisms.
 Review

In the mouth, the tongue and the teeth begin mechanical

digestion, and saliva begins chemical digestion. The
pharynx, which plays roles in breathing and vocalization
as well as digestion, runs from the nasal and oral cavities
superiorly to the esophagus inferiorly (for digestion) and
to the larynx anteriorly (for respiration). During
deglutition (swallowing), the soft palate rises to close off
the nasopharynx, the larynx elevates, and the epiglottis
folds over the glottis.
 Review

The esophagus includes an upper esophageal sphincter

made of skeletal muscle, which regulates the movement
of food from the pharynx to the esophagus. It also has a
lower esophageal sphincter, made of smooth muscle,
which controls the passage of food from the esophagus
to the stomach. Cells in the esophageal wall secrete
mucus that eases the passage of the food bolus.
 Review

The stomach participates in all digestive activities

except ingestion and defecation. It vigorously churns
food. It secretes gastric juices that break down food and
absorbs certain drugs, including aspirin and some
alcohol. The stomach begins the digestion of protein and
continues the digestion of carbohydrates and fats. It
stores food as an acidic liquid called chyme, and
releases it gradually into the small intestine through the
pyloric sphincter.
 Review

The three main regions of the small intestine are the

duodenum, the jejunum, and the ileum. The small intestine
is where digestion is completed and virtually all absorption
occurs. These two activities are facilitated by structural
adaptations that increase the mucosal surface area by 600-
fold, including circular folds, villi, and microvilli. There are
around 200 million microvilli per square millimeter of small
intestine, which contain brush border enzymes that
complete the digestion of carbohydrates and proteins.
 Review

Combined with pancreatic juice, intestinal juice

provides the liquid medium needed to further digest and
absorb substances from chyme. The small intestine is
also the site of unique mechanical digestive movements.
Segmentation moves the chyme back and forth,
increasing mixing and opportunities for absorption.
Migrating motility complexes propel the residual chyme
toward the large intestine.
 Review

The main regions of the large intestine are the cecum, the
colon, and the rectum. The large intestine absorbs water
and forms feces, and is responsible for defecation.
Bacterial flora break down additional carbohydrate
residue, and synthesize certain vitamins. The mucosa of
the large intestinal wall is generously endowed with goblet
cells, which secrete mucus that eases the passage of feces.
The entry of feces into the rectum activates the defecation
reflex.
 Review

Chemical digestion in the small intestine cannot occur

without the help of the liver and pancreas. The liver
produces bile and delivers it to the common hepatic
duct. Bile contains bile salts and phospholipids, which
emulsify large lipid globules into tiny lipid droplets, a
necessary step in lipid digestion and absorption. The
gallbladder stores and concentrates bile, releasing it
when it is needed by the small intestine.
 Review

The pancreas produces the enzyme- and bicarbonate-

rich pancreatic juice and delivers it to the small
intestine through ducts. Pancreatic juice buffers the
acidic gastric juice in chyme, inactivates pepsin from
the stomach, and enables the optimal functioning of
digestive enzymes in the small intestine.
 Review

The small intestine is the site of most chemical digestion

and almost all absorption. Chemical digestion breaks
large food molecules down into their chemical building
blocks, which can then be absorbed through the intestinal
wall and into the general circulation. Intestinal brush
border enzymes and pancreatic enzymes are responsible
for the majority of chemical digestion. The breakdown of
fat also requires bile.
 Review

With the help of bile salts and lecithin, the dietary fats
are emulsified to form micelles, which can carry the
fat particles to the surface of the enterocytes. There,
the micelles release their fats to diffuse across the cell
membrane. The fats are then reassembled into
triglycerides and mixed with other lipids and proteins
into chylomicrons that can pass into lacteals. Other
absorbed monomers travel from blood capillaries in
the villus to the hepatic portal vein and then to the
liver.
QUESTIONS??