COLLEGE OF MEDICINE AND

HEALTH SCIENCES

SCHOOL OF MEDINCE AND

PHARMACY
CELL DEPARTMENT OF MEDICAL
COMPONENTS BIOCHEMISTRY, MOLECULAR
AND CELL
BIOLOGY AND GENETICS
DIVISION

FUNDAMENTAL BIOLOGY AND

BIOCHEMISTRY MODULE FOR YEAR 2
To be delivered by:
PHARMACY
Dr. Niyomukiza Samuel,Ph.D

2024/2025 AY

12/09/2024 08:59 AM 1
 The Cell: Structure and Components

Objectives of the Unit

 Having successfully completed this unit, students should be able:

 Understand the general concept of cell morphology.
 Differentiate Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells.
 Identify the cell components and cell molecules.
 Understand Cell cycle and cell division steps

12/09/2024 08:59 AM 2
 The Cell: Structure and Components

Introduction to Cell
 A cell is the basic unit life that is capable of performing life functions
 They are the fundamental units of life.
 All living things are made up of cells.
✔ We are made of cells.
 Cells make up our skin, our organs, and our muscles.
 The brain, the seat of our thoughts and desires, is made of cells.
 Our blood vessels are full of cells.
 When we grow from a tiny embryo into a large adult, we do so by adding more and more
cells.
 When we get sick, it is often because our cells have run amok (cells are uncontrolled

manner)

12/09/2024 08:59 AM 3
 Chapter 1: The Cell: Structure and Components

Introduction to Cell

Amoeba Bacteria Plant Cell

Nerve Cell Red Blood Cells

12/09/2024 08:59 AM 4
 The Cell: Structure and Components

Cell Theory
▪ Until 1830s, the widespread importance of cells wasn’t realized.
▪ In 1838, Matthias Schleiden, a German lawyer turned botanist, concluded that, despite
differences in the structure of various tissues, plants were made of cells and that the plant
embryo arose from a single cell.
▪ In 1839, Theodor Schwann, a German zoologist and colleague of Schleiden, published a
comprehensive report on the cellular basis of animal life.
▪ Schwann concluded that the cells of plants and animals are similar structures and
proposed these two tenets of the cell theory:
✔ All living things are made up of one or more cells.
✔ The cell is the smallest structural unit of life.
✔ All cells come from preexisting cells through cell division

12/09/2024 08:59 AM 5
 Chapter 1: The Cell: Structure and Components

Basic Properties of Cells

▪ Life is the most basic property of cells, and cells are the basic units to exhibit this
property.
▪ Cells can be removed from the organism and cultured in a laboratory where they will
grow and reproduce for extended periods of time.
▪ If mistreated, they may die.
▪ The following are the most fundamental properties of cells.
i. Cells are highly complex and organized
▪ Cells are highly complex and orderly machines, with defined shapes and a startling
variety of internal organizations.
▪ Complex geometry is a feature of both free-living unicellular organisms and cells
inside multicellular animals

12/09/2024 08:59 AM 6
 The Cell: Structure and Components

Basic Properties of Cells

ii. Cells possess a genetic program and the means to use it
▪ Organisms are built according to information encoded in a collection of genes, which are
constructed of DNA
▪ Vast amount of information is packaged into a set of chromosomes that occupies the
space of a cell nucleus.
▪ All cells possess a genetic program that, when activated, causes the cell to self-
destruction in what is termed active cell death (ACD) or apoptosis
iii. Cells are capable of producing more of themselves
▪ Just as individual organisms are generated by reproduction, so too are individual cells.
▪ Cells reproduce by division, a process in which the contents of a “mother” cell are
distributed into two “daughter” cells.

12/09/2024 08:59 AM 7
The Cell: Structure and Components

Basic Properties of Cells…

iv. Cells acquire and utilize energy

▪ Every biological process requires the input of energy.
▪ For most animal cells, energy arrives prepackaged, often in the form of the sugar
glucose.
▪ In humans, glucose is released by the liver into the blood where it circulates
through the body delivering chemical energy in form of ATP to all the cells.
▪ Cells expend an enormous amount of energy when breaking down and rebuilding
the macromolecules and organelles of which they are made.

12/09/2024 08:59 AM 8
 The Cell: Structure and Components

Basic Properties of Cells…

v. Cells carry out a variety of chemical reactions

▪ Cells perform the functions of life through various chemical reactions
▪ Virtually all chemical changes that take place in cells require enzymes—molecules
that greatly increase the rate at which a chemical reaction occurs.
▪ The sum total of the chemical reactions in a cell represents that cell’s metabolism
vi. Cells engage in mechanical activities
▪ Cells generate and sustain mechanical forces within their environment as part of their
normal physiology.
▪ Materials are transported from place to place, structures are assembled and then
rapidly disassembled, and, in many cases, the entire cell moves itself from one site to
another.

12/09/2024 08:59 AM 9
 The Cell: Structure and Components

Basic Properties of Cells…

vii. Cells are able to respond to Stimuli

▪ Some cells respond to stimuli in obvious ways; a single‐celled protist, for example, moves
away from an object in its path or moves toward a source of nutrients.
Cells within a multicellular plant or animal respond to stimuli less obviously.
viii. Cells are capable of self‐regulation
▪ Cells are robust, that is, hearty or durable, because they are protected from dangerous
fluctuations in composition and behavior.

12/09/2024 08:59 AM 10
 The Cell: Structure and components

Types and structures of cells

▪ There are 2 types of cells

1. Eukaryotes
2. Prokaryotes

Eukaryotic Cell Prokaryotic Cell

12/09/2024 08:59 AM 11
 The Cell: Structure and Components

Types and structures of Cells…

Eukaryotic:
▪ Eukaryotes came from the Greek words meaning true nucleus
▪ Contain organelles surrounded by membranes
▪ Most living organisms
▪ Have a membrane surrounding their DNA, forming a NUCLEUS
▪ Contain numerous internal membranes that have specific functions, called ORGANELLES

Animal
Plant

12/09/2024 08:59 AM 12
 The Cell: Structure and Components

Types and structures of Cells…

▪ Eukaryotes have the following distinguishing characteristics:

1. Their DNA is found in the cell's nucleus, which is separated from the cytoplasm by a
nuclear membrane, and the DNA is found in multiple chromosomes.
2. Their DNA is consistently associated with chromosomal proteins called histones and
with non-histones.
3. They have a number of membrane-enclosed organelles, including mitochondria,
endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, lysosomes, and sometimes chloroplasts (in
plants and photosynthesizing organisms).
4. Their cell walls, when present, are chemically simple.
5. Cell division usually involves mitosis, in which chromosomes replicate and an identical
set is distributed into each of two nuclei.
 This process is guided by the mitotic spindle, a football-shaped assembly of microtubules.
 Division
12/09/2024 of
08:59 AM the cytoplasm and other organelles follows so that the two cells produced 13
are
 The Cell: Structure and Components

Types and structures of Cells…

Eukaryotic cell structures

▪ Organelles – structures within a eukaryotic cell.
✔ Organelles mean “Little Organs”
▪ Cell biologists divide the eukaryotic cell into two major parts
a) Nucleus
b) Cytoplasm – contains the other organelles.
a) Nucleus
▪ The nucleus is the control center of the cell.

✔ Directs cell activities

▪ The nucleus contains the cell's DNA which is the instructions for making proteins
▪ Separated from cytoplasm by nuclear membrane
▪12/09/2024
In most08:59
cells,
AM the nucleus is the largest organelle. 14
 The Cell: Structure and Components

Types and structures of Cells…

▪ Contains genetic material – DNA
▪ DNA in the nucleus is organized into structures called chromosomes.

b) Nuclear Membrane
▪ Surrounds nucleus
▪ Made of two layers
▪ Openings allow material to enter and leave nucleus

Chromatin

Nuclear envelope

Nucleolus
Nuclear pores
12/09/2024 08:59 AM 15
 The Cell: Structure and Components

Types and structures of Cells…

c) Chromosomes
▪ Found in the nucleus
▪ are composed of DNA
▪ Contain instructions for traits and characteristics
▪ carry the genetic information in eukaryotic cells
d) Cytoplasm
▪ Gel-like mixture
▪ Surrounded by cell membrane
▪ Contains hereditary material
▪ Made up of a PHOSPHOLIPID BILAYER: outside is hydrophilic and inside is
hydrophobic
▪ Selectively Permeable, but naturally impermeable to large objects
▪ Concentration Gradient – Concentration of sodium ions can attract and repel charged
substances
12/09/2024 into
08:59 AM and out of cells. 16
 The Cell: Structure and Components

Types and structures of Cells…

▪ Gelatinous material inside of a cell

▪ Liquid portion is called CYTOSOL
▪ Contains INCLUSIONS– deposits of small
compounds within the cytoplasm
12/09/2024 08:59 AM 17
 The Cell: Structure and Components

Types and structures of Cells…

e) Endoplasmic Reticulum
▪ Moves materials around in cell
▪ Smooth type: lacks ribosomes
▪ Rough type (pictured): ribosomes embedded in surface
▪ ER with ribosomes on its surface is called
rough ER
✔ is the site of protein production
✔ uses ribosomes to make proteins, modifies
them, and sends them to the golgi.
▪ ER without ribosomes is called smooth ER.
✔ It makes lipids like cholesterol
✔ helps remove harmful substances from a cell
✔ makes new membranes and detoxifies
12/09/2024 08:59 AM dangerous chemicals 18
 The Cell: Structure and Components

f) Ribosomes
▪ Proteins are assembled on ribosomes
during protein synthesis.
▪ Ribosomes are found in the cytoplasm
and attached to the ER
▪ Ribosomes are in a cell’s cytoplasm
and make proteins.
▪ Each cell contains thousands of
Ribosomes
▪ Found on ribosomes and floating
throughout the cell
g) Mitochondria
▪ Produces energy through chemical reactions – breaking down fats and carbohydrates
▪ Controls level of water and other materials in cell
12/09/2024 08:59 AM 19
▪ Recycles and decomposes proteins, fats, and carbohydrates
 The Cell: Structure and Components

Types and structures of Cells…

▪ Site of cellular respiration (releasing energy from glucose)
▪ Powerhouse of the cell
▪ Makes ATP – battery of life

h) Golgi Bodies

▪ Protein 'packaging plant'

▪ Move materials within the cell
▪ Move materials out of the cell
▪ receives, modifies, and ships vacuoles (packages).
▪ It’s the UPS (Ubiquitin/Proteasome system) of the cell: highly regulated mechanism
of intracellular protein degradation and turnover
12/09/2024 08:59 AM 20
 The Cell: Structure and Components

Types and structures of Cells…

i) Lysosome

▪ Digestive 'plant' for proteins, fats, and carbohydrates

▪ a vacuole that contains digestive enzymes.
▪ It is used to break down bacteria and food taken in by the cell.
▪ Transports undigested material to cell membrane for removal.
▪ Cell breaks down if lysosome explodes

12/09/2024 08:59 AM 21
 The Cell: Structure and Components

Types and structures of Cells…

j) Vacuoles
▪ Membrane-bound sacs for storage, digestion, and waste removal
▪ Contains water solution
▪ Help plants maintain shape
▪ Central Vacuole – large storage space in plant cells used for storing water. It gives the
cell internal pressure.
▪ The paramecium contains a contractile vacuole that
pumps excess water out of the cell.
k) Chloroplast
▪ Usually found in plant cells and photosynthetic algae
Vacuole
▪ Contains green chlorophyll
▪ Where photosynthesis takes place
▪ Capture energy from sunlight and convert it into sugar in a process Chloroplast
12/09/2024 08:59 AM 22
called photosynthesis.
 The Cell: Structure and Components

Types and structures of Cells…

l) Cytoskeleton
▪ The cytoskeleton is made up of: ▪ Functions of the Cytoskeleton:

✔ microfilaments ✔ Keeping Cell Shape

✔ microtubules ✔ Movement within the Cell

12/09/2024 08:59 AM 23
 The Cell: Structure and Components

Prokaryotic structure

▪ The name Prokaryotes is derived from the Greek words meaning prenucleus
▪ Prokaryotes are the oldest, structurally simplest, and most abundant forms of life on
earth
✔ abundant for over 2 billion years before the appearance of eukaryotes
▪ Prokaryotic synthesis (from cyanobacteria) is thought to have been the source for
much of the earth’s oxygen in atmosphere
▪ 5,000 different kinds currently recognized
▪ Do NOT have a membrane surrounding genetic material, therefore, can make proteins
simultaneously when reading genetic code.
▪ Lack some structures found in Eukaryotic cells
▪ Most prokaryotic cells are small and lack interior organization.
▪ The plasma membrane is enclosed within a rigid cell wall
▪12/09/2024
DNA not 08:59contained
AM within a membrane-bounded nucleus. 24
 The Cell: Structure and Components

Prokaryotic structure…
▪ Prokaryotes exteriorly may have a flagellum and other outgrowths called pili.
▪ Pili aid in attachment to other cells
▪ The chief distinguishing characteristics of prokaryotes are as follows:

1. Their DNA is not enclosed within a membrane and is usually a singular circularly
arranged chromosome.
▪ Some bacteria, such as Vibrio cholerae, have two chromosomes, and some
bacteria have a linearly arranged chromosome.)
2. Their DNA is not associated with histones (special chromosomal proteins found in
eukaryotes); other proteins are associated with the DNA.
3. They lack membrane-enclosed organelles.
4. Their cell walls almost always contain the complex polysaccharide peptidoglycan.
5. They usually divide by binary fission. During this process, the DNA is copied, and the
cell splits into two cells
12/09/2024 08:59 AM 25
▪ Binary fission involves fewer structures and processes than eukaryotic cell division
 The Cell: Structure and Components

Prokaryotic structure…

Binary Fission

▪ The members of the prokaryotic world make up a vast heterogeneous group of very small
unicellular organisms.
▪ Prokaryotes include bacteria and archaea.
▪ 12/09/2024
The majority
08:59 AMof prokaryotes, including the photosynthesizing cyanobacteria, are bacteria.
26
 The Cell: Structure and Components

Prokaryotic structure…

▪ Although bacteria and archaea look similar, their chemical composition is different
▪ The thousands of species of bacteria are differentiated by many factors, including
✔ morphology (shape),
✔ chemical composition (often detected by staining reactions),
✔ nutritional requirements,
✔ biochemical activities, and
✔ sources of energy (sunlight or chemicals).
▪ It is estimated that 99% of the bacteria in nature exist in biofilms (a thin resistant
layer of MOs (bacteria) that form on and coat various surfaces)

12/09/2024 08:59 AM 27
 The Cell: Structure and Components

Characteristics of Prokaryotic Cells

▪ Prokaryotes are characterized by the following characteristic features
1) no membrane-bound organelles
 no nucleus
 no mitochondria
 no chloroplasts
2) Bacterial DNA not associated with histone proteins so "chromosomes" of bacteria
called genophores
 bacterial DNA is a circular molecule
3) Most bacteria are unicellular (except in cyanobacteria which are filamentous)
4) Cell walls of bacteria (those with cell walls) contain peptidoglycan (carbohydrate
polymers connected by short chains of amino acids)
5) Reproduction via fission
6) No meiosis or fertilization because they lack nucleus, but can exchange DNA through
12/09/2024 08:59 AM 28
 The Cell: Structure and Components

Characteristics of Prokaryotic Cells

▪ this usually involves plasmid DNA not genophores

▪ transformation - absorption of free DNA
▪ transduction - DNA transferred from bacteria to bacteria via viruses

conjugation pilus :
 Plasmids carry hereditary information in the form of genes, the basic units
of inheritance.
 Plasmids generally carry fewer genes than do chromosomes, and the genes
that they carry are useful, but not essential, to the survival of the cell

12/09/2024 08:59 AM 29
 The Cell: Structure and Components

Characteristics of Prokaryotic Cells

Note that not all bacteria have all the structures shown . Structures labeled in red are
found in all bacteria. Both the drawing and the micrograph show a bacterium sectioned
lengthwise
12/09/2024 08:59to
AMreveal the internal composition 30
 The Cell: Structure and Components

Characteristics of Prokaryotic Cells

▪ The basic components of bacterial cells includes
1. Extra cellular and surface components (external structure)
2. Cell envelope:-
• Cell well and under lying cytoplasmic membrane
3. Cytoplasmic components
Chromoso
Cell wall mal DNA

Capsule

Flagella

Ribosome
12/09/2024 08:59 AM Plasmid DNA 31
Cytoplasmic Inclusion
 The Cell: Structure and Components

A Comparison of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

Features held in common by the two types of cells:
▪ Plasma membrane of similar construction
▪ Genetic information encoded in DNA using identical genetic code
▪ Similar mechanisms for transcription and translation of genetic information,
including similar ribosomes
▪ Shared metabolic pathways (e.g., glycolysis and TCA cycle)
▪ Similar apparatus for conservation of chemical energy as ATP (located in the
plasma membrane of prokaryotes and the mitochondrial membrane of eukaryotes)
▪ Similar mechanism of photosynthesis (between cyanobacteria and green plants)
▪ Similar mechanism for synthesizing and inserting membrane proteins
▪ Proteasomes (protein digesting structures) of similar construction (between
archaebacteria and eukaryotes)
▪12/09/2024
Cytoskeletal
08:59 AMfilaments built of proteins similar to actin and tubulin 32
 Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

Type of Cell Always unicellular Unicellular and multi-cellular

Cell size Ranges in size from 0.2 μm – 2.0 μm in diameter Size ranges from 10 μm – 100 μm in diameter

Cell wall Usually present; chemically complex in nature When present, chemically simple in nature

Nucleus Absent. Instead, they have a nucleoid region in the cell Present

Ribosomes Present. Smaller in size and spherical in shape Present. Comparatively larger in size and linear in shape

DNA arrangement Circular Linear

Mitochondria Absent Present

Cytoplasm Present, but cell organelles absent Present, cell organelles present

Endoplasmic reticulum Absent Present

Plasmids Present Very rarely found in eukaryotes

Ribosome Small ribosomes Large ribosomes

Lysosome Lysosomes and centrosomes are absent Lysosomes and centrosomes are present

Cell division Through binary fission Through mitosis

Flagella The flagella are smaller in size The flagella are larger in size

Reproduction Asexual Both asexual and sexual

12/09/2024 08:59 AM 33
Example Bacteria and Archaea Plant and Animal cell
 The Cell: Structure and Components

A Comparison of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells…

Features of eukaryotic cells not found in prokaryotes:
▪ Division of cells into nucleus and cytoplasm, separated by a nuclear envelope
containing complex pore structures
▪ Complex chromosomes composed of DNA and associated proteins that are capable of
compacting into mitotic structures
▪ Complex membranous cytoplasmic organelles (includes endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi
complex, lysosomes, endosomes, peroxisomes, and glyoxisomes)
▪ Specialized cytoplasmic organelles for aerobic respiration (mitochondria) and
photosynthesis (chloroplasts)
▪ Complex cytoskeletal system (including actin filaments, intermediate filaments, and
microtubules) and associated motor proteins
▪ Complex flagella and cilia

12/09/2024 08:59 AM 34
 The Cell: Structure and Components

A Comparison of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells…

Features of eukaryotic cells not found in prokaryotes:

▪ Ability to ingest particulate material by enclosure within plasma membrane vesicles
(phagocytosis)
▪ Cellulose‐containing cell walls (in plants)
▪ Cell division using a microtubule‐containing mitotic spindle that separates
chromosomes
▪ Presence of two copies of genes per cell (diploidy), one from each parent
▪ Presence of three different RNA synthesizing enzymes (RNA polymerases)
▪ Sexual reproduction requiring meiosis and fertilization

12/09/2024 08:59 AM 35
 Cell division

▪Before the cell gets too large it divides into two daughter cells
▪The process is called cell division
▪Cell division is the process by which a parent cell divides into two
daughter cells.
▪Cell division solves the problem of cells getting too large by
increasing the size and reducing volume (more small cells instead
of one large cell)

`
12/09/2024 08:59 AM 36
 Cell division

▪ All cell division must involve the replication of DNA before cell division so
the genetic information can be transferred to the daughter cells.
✔It replicates or copies, its entire DNA.
✔This solves the problem of information storage because each daughter
cell gets a complete set of genetic information
▪ In Prokaryotes the rest of cell division is simply to the contents
▪ In Eukaryotes the division is more complex it occurs in two stages:
• a. Mitosis: division of the nucleus
• b. Cytokinesis: division of the cytoplasm

12/09/2024 08:59 AM 37
 Cell division
▪Three types of cell division, or cell
reproduction
i. Prokaryotes (bacteria)
▪Binary fission: divides forming two new
identical cells

12/09/2024 08:59 AM
38
 Binary fission involves three main steps
1. DNA Replication: DNA is copied, resulting
in two identical chromosomes
2. Chromosome Segregation: 2 chromosomes
separate, move towards ends (poles) of cell
3. Cytokinesis: cytoplasm divides, forming 2
cells.Each new daughter cell is genetically
identical to parent cell

12/09/2024 08:59 AM 39
 Cell division

✔Mitosis
▪Cell or organism growth
▪Replacement or repair of damaged cells
✔Meiosis
▪ Formation of sex cells, or gametes.

12/09/2024 08:59 AM 40
 The importance of cell division

Cell division have the following importance

▪Production of new cells from older ones.
▪Maintains the total number of chromosomes.
▪ Provides more cells for growth and development.
▪Repairs and controls the damage caused to the cells.

12/09/2024 08:59 AM 41
 Cell cycle

▪Series of events that take place from one cell

division to the next.
▪Events that cells go through as they grow and
divide. Constantly repeated

12/09/2024 08:59 AM 42
 Cell cycle

▪During the Cell Cycle

✔a cell grows
✔prepares for division
✔divides to form two daughter cells, each of which begins the cycle
again
▪Cell cycle consists of three and four phases
i. Interphase (G1 phase, S phase and G2 phase )
ii. Mitosis (M phase)
iii.Cytokines

12/09/2024 08:59 AM 43
 CELL CYCLE

i. Interphase
▪Period of growth and development
▪Longest phase of the cell cycle
✔90% of the cell’s time is spent in interphase
▪consists of 3 of these 4 phases.

12/09/2024 08:59 AM 44
 Cell division
✔G1 (First Gap Phase): cell increases in size
✔S Phase (synthesis): replication of chromosomes
✔G2 (Second Gap Phase:
▪ During G1 (First Gap) phase the cell
✔increases in size
✔synthesizes new proteins and organelles
▪ During the S (Synthesis) phase
✔chromosomes are replicated
✔DNA synthesis takes place
45
✔Now two strands called sister chromatids joined by a centromere
✔Once a cell enters the S phase, it usually completes the rest of the cell cycle .
12/09/2024 08:59 AM
 Cell division
Cell Cycle

46

12/09/2024 08:59 AM
 Cell division
▪During the G2 Phase (Second Gap Phase)
✔organelles and molecules required for cell division are produced
✔new cytoplasm forms
✔All other structures needed for mitosis form
▪Once G2 is complete, the cell is ready to start the M phase—Mitosis
▪In generally three events happen during interphase:
⮚ Cell grows in size; makes an extra set of structures
⮚ Cell makes a copy of its hereditary material. (DNA)
⮚ Produces structures needed division (spindle fibers, centrioles)
47

12/09/2024 08:59 AM
 Cell division
ii.Mitosis
▪ Is the division of the nucleus
▪ Results in two new identical nuclei
▪ Division of somatic cells (non-
reproductive cells) in eukaryotic
organisms.
▪ A single cell divides into two identical
daughter cells.
▪ Daughter cells have same number of
48
chromosomes as does parent cell

12/09/2024 08:59 AM
 Cell division
ii. Mitosis…

• Mitosis is followed by cytokinesis (cell division)

• The steps of mitosis ensure that each new cell has the exact same
number of chromosomes as the original
• Nuclear division & division of cytoplasm
• DNA condense
• Mitosis have four phases (PMAT)
✔Prophase
✔Metaphase
✔Anaphase
49

✔Telophase
12/09/2024 08:59 AM
 Cell division
1. Prophase
ii. Mitosis…
▪ Beginning of mitosis (nuclear division)
▪ The following major events occur
1. Chromosomes condensed and become visible
2. Each chromosome consists of two identical sister
chromatids connected at the centromere
3. Spindle fibers form
✔ (spindle fibers are specialized microtubules radiating out
from centrioles)
4. Chromosomes are captured by spindle
5. Centrioles migrate to the poles (only in animals)
6. Nuclear membrane disappears.
7. 12/09/2024
Phase ends with the breakdown of the nuclear membrane
08:59 AM 50
 Cell division
2. Metaphase

▪ Chromosomes align along the equator of the

cell, with one chromatid facing each pole
Equator
▪ Spindles attach to centromeres
▪ Centromeres of the chromatid pairs line up in
the middle of the cell.
▪ By the end of metaphase each chromatid has
attached to spindle fibers.

3. Anaphase

▪ The spindle fibers pull the chromatids apart

▪ Sister Chromatids separate
▪ spindle fibers attached to kinetochores
shorten and pull chromatids towards the
51
poles.

12/09/2024 08:59 AM
 Cell division
3. Anaphase

▪ free spindle fibers lengthen and push the poles of the cell apart
▪ Chromatids move towards opposite poles, centromeres first, creating a “V” shape
▪ Now there are two identical sets of chromosomes
4. Telophase

▪ When the chromosomes reach opposite sides of the

cell the spindle fibers break up.
▪ The nuclear membrane begins to reform
▪ chromosomes uncoil • now chromatin
▪ nuclear membranes reform
▪ spindle disappears
▪ cytokinesis occurs, enclosing each daughter nucleus
into a separate cell

12/09/2024 08:59 AM 52
 Cell division
iii. Cytokinesis

▪ Occurs at end of Mitosis

✔ division of the cytoplasm to form 2
new daughter cells
✔ organelles are divided
▪ The two identical cells completely
divide, and the cell membrane is
completely formed
▪ Daughter cells are genetically identical

▪ During cytokinesis
✔ Division of the cytoplasm 53
✔ End of the cell cycle
✔ Production of two identical daughter cells
12/09/2024 08:59 AM
 Meiosis
Meiosis
Genetics Terminology

❖ Ploidy: refers to the number of sets of chromosomes in cells

❖ Haploid : one copy of each chromosome
✔ designated as “n”, the number of chromosomes in one “set”
✔ Haploid cells are called gametes
✔ Gametes are either sperm or eggs

Organism Diploid Gamete

Human 46 23
Pea 14 7
Fruit fly 8 4
Dog 78 39
12/09/2024 08:59 AM 54
 Meiosis
Meiosis…
❖ Diploid : two sets of chromosomes (two of each chromosome)
✔ Designated as “2n”
✔ Somatic cells
❖ Diploid organisms receive one of each type of chromosome from female parent
(maternal chromosomes) and one of each type of chromosome from male parent
(paternal chromosomes)
❖ Homologues Chromosomes : Chromosomes exist in homologous pairs in diploid (2n)
cells.
✔ Except Sex chromosomes (X, Y), all other chromosomes (autosomes) have
homologues

12/09/2024 08:59 AM 55
 Meiosis
Meiosis…

▪ Homologues Chromosomes are paired chromosomes with genes for the same trait
arranged in the same order.
✔ Ex. Eye color, hair color, height, one may code for blue, blonde, tall, its homolog
may code for brown, blonde, short
▪ Homologous chromosomes may have different alleles on them
▪ Allele- gene form for each variation of a trait of an organism.

▪ Sexually reproducing eukaryotes have two types of body cells

1. Somatic cells: cells of the body that compose the tissue, organs and parts of that
individual other than the germ cells
2. Sex cells (Germ cells): a gamete (such as an egg or sperm cell) or one of its
antecedent cells
▪ E.g. Gametes, Germline
12/09/2024 08:59 AM 56
 Meiosis
Meiosis
▪ Meiosis: Sex Cell (Gamete) Formation
▪ Meiosis is a cellular process that results in the number of chromosomes in gamete
producing cells being reduced to one half and that involves a reduction division in
which one of each pair of homologous chromosomes passes to each daughter cell.
▪ Meiosis is the process of cell division in which gametes are formed and the number of
chromosomes is halved. So that sexual reproduction and zygote formation can occur.
▪ Zygote- Fertilized egg which has a diploid number of chromosomes.
▪ Meiosis comes from Greek meiosis to mean diminution or from meioun to mean
diminish or from meion to mean less
▪ Daughter cells have half the number of chromosomes as parent cell, so they are
considered haploid
▪ During Meiosis,
✔ A 08:59
12/09/2024 single
AM germ cell divides into four unique daughter cells 57
 Meiosis
Meiosis…
▪ In meiosis, there are 2 divisions of the nucleus:

✔ meiosis I
✔ meiosis II

12/09/2024 08:59 AM 58
 Meiosis
Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction
Life Cycle

12/09/2024 08:59 AM 59
 Meiosis
Stages of Meiosis
1. Meiosis I
▪ Meiosis I undergo the following stage
i. Interphase:
▪ Chromosomes replicate
▪ Each chromosome consists of 2 identical sister chromatids
ii. Prophase I
▪ Each pair of homologous chromosomes come together to form a tetrad.
▪ Tetrad- 2 homologous chromosomes come together, and the 4 chromatids
overlap
Crossing over
▪ Tetrads are so tight that non-sister chromatids from the homologous pair actually exchange
genetic material
▪ Crossing over-:the exchange of genetic material by non-sister chromatids during late prophase I
of meiosis.
12/09/2024 08:59 AM 60
▪ Results in a new combination of alleles
 Meiosis
1. Meiosis I…
iii. Metaphase I

▪ Homologous chromosomes line up together in pairs.

✔ In mitosis homologous chromosomes line up in the middle independently of
each other.
iv. Anaphase I
▪ Spindle fibers attach to the centromeres of each pair.
▪ Homologous chromosomes separate and move to opposite ends of the cell.
▪ Centromeres DO NOT split like they do in mitosis
▪ Now each cell will get one chromosome from each homologous pair.
v. Telophase I
▪ Spindle fibers break down
▪ Chromosomes uncoil
▪12/09/2024 08:59 AM
Cytoplasm divides 61
 Meiosis
1. Meiosis I…

▪ Another cell division is needed because the number of chromosomes has not been
reduced
▪ After telophase I there maybe a short interphase, but not always.
▪ It is important to note that if a cell does have a second interphase, there is No
replication of chromosomes.

12/09/2024 08:59 AM 62
 Meiosis
Genetic shuffling of Meiosis I
▪ there are also events in Meiosis I that shuffle the genes.
i. Crossing over which occur in Prophase I.
ii. Independent assortment which occur in Metaphase
i. Crossing over
▪ Homologues break at identical
locations, then rejoin opposite partners.

▪ This creates new combinations of the

alleles on each chromosome.

▪ Occurs randomly several times on

every chromosome.

▪ Results in mixing of the genes you

12/09/2024 08:59 AM 63
inherited from your parents.
 Meiosis
Genetic shuffling of Meiosis I…

ii. Independent assortment

▪ Independent assortment of chromosomes

✔ meiosis introduces genetic variation
✔ gametes of offspring do not have same combination of genes as gametes from
parents
❖ random assortment in humans produces 223 (8,388,608) different
combinations in gametes

new
from gametes
from offspr
Mom 08:59 AM made by
12/09/2024 Dad ing 64
offspring
 Meiosis
Genetic shuffling of Meiosis I…

ii. Independent assortment

12/09/2024 08:59 AM 65
 Meiosis

2. Meiosis II
▪ Is basically just like mitosis, but remember the chromosomes did not duplicate in
interphase II.
Prophase II
▪ Chromosomes begin to line up in the middle of the cell.
▪ Spindle fibers begin to form
Metaphase II
▪ Chromosomes line up on the metaphase
Anaphase II
▪ Centromeres split
▪ Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite sides of the cell

12/09/2024 08:59 AM 66
 Meiosis

2. Meiosis II

Telophase II
▪ Spindle fibers disappear
▪ Nuclei reform
▪ Cytoplasm divides into two.
✔ The number of chromosomes in each daughter cell has now been reduced by half.

12/09/2024 08:59 AM 67
 Cell division regulation
Control of the Cell Division Cycle

▪ Multicellular organisms control cell growth and division very carefully (way to
increase number of cells and size of organism)
▪ This provides the replacement of cells that wear out or broken down
▪ During mitosis, a sequence of biochemical and structural events occur during
interphase
✔ duplication of the genome in S phase (the “S” stands for DNA synthesis)
✔ In this shorthand cell cycle, mitosis is referred to as M phase
▪ S phase and M phase must occur
(a) in the correct order and
(b) only once per cell cycle
▪ To make sure this is the case, S phase and M phase do not follow immediately after
one another but are separated by “gaps” that allow the cell to check that everything is
12/09/2024 08:59 AM 68
in order before going in to the next stage
 Cell division regulation
Control of the Cell Division Cycle…

▪ The gap between M phase and S phase

is called G1 (gap 1), and the gap
between S phase and M phase is called
G2 (gap 2).
▪ These four phases, G1, S, G2, and M
make up the classic cell cycle “clock”
▪ Nondividing or quiescent cells are said
to be in the G0 (gap 0) phase of the cell
cycle.
▪ G0 cells can remain viable for months
or even years, and most of the cells in
the human body are in fact in this
12/09/2024 08:59 AM 69
nondividing state.
 Cell division regulation
Control of the Cell Division Cycle…

▪ For dividing cells, two points in the cell cycle are particularly critical.
▪ The first is at the G1/S boundary at which point the cell is committed to DNA
replication.
▪ The second is at the G2/M transition when it is committed to mitosis.
✔ These are the major control points of the cell cycle, and before crossing them the cell must

be sure that conditions are such that S phase and M phase can be executed successfully.
▪ At G1/S, the cell must decide whether it is big enough and whether nutritional
conditions are appropriate to begin the crucial process of replicating its genome.
▪ In G2 the primary concern is that its DNA is in perfect condition before entering
mitosis.
✔ There are sensitive mechanisms for detecting the presence of non-replicated or damaged
DNA, and cells will not commit themselves to mitosis until any defects have been attended
to08:59 AM
12/09/2024 70
 Cell division regulation
Control of the Cell Division Cycle…
▪ G1 Checkpoint—decides whether or not cell will divide
▪ S Checkpoint—determines if DNA has been properly replicated
▪ Mitotic Spindle Checkpoint—ensures chromosomes are aligned at mitotic plate

12/09/2024 08:59 AM 71
 Cell division regulation
Control of the Cell Division Cycle…
Molecular Regulation of the G2/M (Interphase/Mitosis) Cell Cycle Control Point

▪ As cells enter mitosis, they undergo a remarkable sequence of structural changes.

▪ Not only do the chromosomes condense but, in addition,
✔ the nuclear envelope breaks down,
✔ the nucleolus disperses,
✔ the membranes of the golgi apparatus and endoplasmic reticulum fragment, and
✔ the cytoskeleton undergoes remodeling to form a completely new cellular
structure, the mitotic spindle

12/09/2024 08:59 AM 72
 Review Questions

I. Multiple Choice :
1. Mitosis proceeds in the order
A. cytokinesis, prophase, prometaphase, telophase, metaphase, and anaphase.
B. telophase, anaphase, prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, and cytokinesis.
C. prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, and cytokinesis.
D. prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, cytokinesis, anaphase, and telophase.
E. prophase, prometaphase, cytokinesis, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
2. Paired chromatids separate and begin to move toward the spindle poles in mitotic
A. prophase.
B. prometaphase.
C. metaphase.
D. anaphase.
E.12/09/2024
telophase 08:59 AM 73
 Review Questions

Multiple Choice :
3. Meiosis differs from mitosis in that
A. the centrioles do not separate during the first meiotic division.
B. meiotic divisions are always asymmetric B. prometaphase.
C. meiosis generates cells with half as much DNA as the progeny of mitotic division have.
D. movement of chromosomes toward the spindles is slower.
E. All of the above.
II. Essay Type:
1) Discuss the cell theory.
2) What makes prokaryotic cell different from Eukaryotic cell?
3) Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells division is similar. True or False? How ?
4) What happens when you cut your finger?
5)12/09/2024
Why multicellular
08:59 AM organisms control cell growth and division very carefully? 74
 References

1) Janet Iwasa and Wallace Marshall. 2016. Karp’s Cell and Molecular
Biology: Concepts and Experiments, 8th Edn., Wiley.
2) Bruce Alberts, Dennis Bray, Karen Hopkin, Alexander Johnson, Julian
Lewis, Martin Raff, Keith Roberts, Peter Walter. 2014. Essential cell biology, 4th
Edn., Published by Garland Science, Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
3) Stephen R. Bolsover, Jeremy S. Hyams, Elizabeth A. Shephard, Hugh A.
White, Claudia G. Wiedemann. 2004. Cell Biology, 2nd Edn., John Wiley and Sons,
Inc., Publication.

12/09/2024 08:59 AM 75