Frameworks and Principles

Behind Our Moral Disposition

Ethics
Meta-Ethics
Meta-ethics is the branch of ethics that studies the nature of morality. As such,
it talks about the meaning, reference, and truth values of moral judgments. It
also explains what goodness and wickedness mean and how we know about
them. Studying the methods for choosing ethical principles and doing
normative ethics can be said to be part of this more basic branch of moral
philosophy.
Because it studies the meaning of ethical language and the metaphysics of
moral truths, meta-ethics deals with questions like the following: Are there
objective moral truths? What do the words 'good,' 'bad,' 'right' and 'wrong'
mean? Are moral judgments a matter of subjective personal feeling? If we say
"Slavery is wrong," are we just claiming our customs or are we making an
objective declaration that is true regardless of what anybody may think? How
can we know if something is right or wrong? How may ethical propositions be
Cognitivism vs. Non-cognitivism

a. Cognitivism states that moral judgments convey propositions, that is, they are 'truth
bearers,' or they are either true or false. Most ethical theories are cognitivist as they
contend that right and wrong are matters of fact. The most famous forms of cognitive
ethics are the moral realism and the ethical subjectivism.

Moral realism claims that the existence of moral facts and the truth (or falsity) of
moral judgments are independent of people's thoughts and perceptions. It
maintains that morality is about objective facts, that is, not facts about any
person or group's subjective judgment.

Ethical subjectivism, on the other hand, holds that the truth (or falsity) of
ethical propositions are dependent on the attitudes or standards of a person or
group of persons. Subjectivism is obviously contrary to moral realism.
B. Non-cognitivism denies that moral judgments are either true or false.
It claims that ethical sentences do not convey authentic propositions,
hence are neither true nor false.

Emotivism is the most popular form of non-cognitivist theory. It submits

that moral judgments are mere expressions of our emotions and
feelings. Like exclamatory sentences, ethical sentences cannot be said
to be either true or false according to the theory.
Universalism vs. Relativism

Moral universalism theorizes that moral facts and principles apply to everybody in all places.
Also called 'moral objectivism,' it claims that a universal ethic exists and that this applies to all
similarly situated persons, regardless of nationality, citizenship, culture, race, gender, sexual
preference, religion, or any other differentiating factor. Believing that some behaviors are simply
wrong, it also submits that if something is right for one, then it is right for another. Moral universalism
is very much compatible with 'moral realism.'

Moral relativism, on the other hand, submits that different moral facts and principles apply to
different persons or group of individuals.
Believing that various cultures have distinct standards of right and wrong, it also maintains that
ethical standards also change over time even in the same culture. Denying a single, objective
standard for morality, it holds that all moral norms are equally true and morals are mere
preferences. Noticeably, it is very much compatible with 'ethical subjectivism.
Empiricism vs. Rationalism vs. Intuitionism

Moral empiricism is a meta-ethical stance which states that moral facts are known through observation and experience.
The theory is an extension of 'empiricism' in epistemology which states that all knowledge of matters of fact is derived from
experience and that our mind is not equipped with pre-experience concepts. Some forms of moral empiricism hold that moral
truths are reducible to matters about people's opinions or cultural conventions and thus are recognizable by observation of their
conventions.

Moral rationalism contends that moral facts and principles are knowable a priori, that is, by reason alone and without reference
to experience.

As 'rationalism' in epistemology claims that knowledge about reality is gained through a non- empirical deductive system, most
forms of moral rationalism purport that moral facts are known through a rational inferential process. In general, the theory relies on
reason rather than intuition in justifying a belief or action.

Moral intuitionism submits that moral truths are knowable by intuition, that is, by immediate, instinctive knowledge without
reference to any evidence.

The theory claims that we have an intuitive awareness of value or morality and that it defines the basis of our ethical knowledge. It
thus insists that the mora
NORMATIVE ETHICS
Normative ethics is the branch of ethics that studies how man ought to act, morally
speaking. As the name suggests, it examines ethical norms, that is, those guidelines
about what is right, worthwhile, virtuous, or just.

This branch evaluates standards for the rightness and wrongness of actions and
determines a moral course of action. Prescriptive in nature, it addresses specific
moral questions about what we should do or believe: We do normative ethics if we
justify norms like "Discrimination is wrong," or "We must always act in accordance
with our duty." Just for easy distinction, whereas meta-ethics tackles questions such
as "What is goodness?" normative ethics deals with issues like "What ought one to
do?
Classifications of normative ethical theories:
Deontology is an ethical system that bases morality on independent moral rules or duties.
The term came from the Greek word dean, which means 'duty,' implying the foundational nature of man's duties or
obligations. This system equates behaving morally with adherence to duties or moral rules and acting immorally with
failure to obey them. Also called non-consequentialism, the system's principles are submitted as obligatory,
regardless of the consequences that actions might produce.

Teleology refers to a moral system that determines the moral value of actions by their outcomes or results.
From the Greek word 'telos,' which means 'end,' teleology takes into account the result of the action as the exclusive
consideration of its morality. Teleology deems an action as morally right if its favorable consequences are greater
than its adverse outcomes. Its most famous form is consequentialism which proposes that morality is determined
solely by a cost-benefit evaluation of the action's consequences.

Virtue ethics, as a moral system, emphasizes developing good habits of character, like kindness and generosity,
and avoiding bad character traits, or vices, such as greed or hatred. Virtue-based theories give importance to moral
education which molds individuals to habitually act in a virtuous manner. Focusing on the character of the agent,
virtue ethics describes right actions as those chosen and performed by a suitably virtuous person.
APPLIED ETHICS
Applied Ethics philosophically examines specific, controversial moral issues. Using
philosophical methods, this area of concern in Ethics attempts to determine the ethically
correct course of action in specific realms of human action.

For a subject to be considered as an applied ethical issue, not only must it be a matter of
moral judgment, but also it has to be controversial. That is, there must be considerable
groups of people both for and against the issue.
Applied ethical issues nowadays are classified into various subfields:

Bioethics. This concerns with ethical issues about life, biomedical researches, medicines, health care, and the medical profession. As such, it deals
with controversies like those about surrogate mothering, genetic manipulation of fetuses, stem cell research, using human embryos in research, in-
vitro fertilization, abortion, euthanasia, suicide, patient rights, confidentiality of patients' records, physician's responsibilities, and mandatory medical
screening.

Environmental ethics. It deals with moral issues concerning nature, ecosystem, and its nonhuman contents. This includes issues such as animal
rights, animal experimentation, endangered species preservation, pollution control, and sustainable development.

Business ethics. It examines moral principles concerning the business environment, which involves issues about corporate practices, policies,
business behaviors, and the conducts and relationships of individuals in the organizations. It investigates ethical controversies such as those about
the social responsibility of businesses, employee rights, harassment, labor unions, misleading advertising, job discrimination, and whistleblowing.

Sexual ethics. It studies moral issues about sexuality and human sexual behavior. It examines topics like homosexuality, lesbianism, polygamy,
pre-marital sex, marital fidelity, extra-marital sex, non-marital procreation, loveless sexual relations, safe sex, and contraceptive use.

Social ethics. It deals with what is right for a society to do and how it should act as a whole. Its focus is on what may be deemed as proper
behavior for people as a whole. Some of the issues under this are those about racial discrimination, death penalty, nuclear weapon production, gun
control, drug use for fun, and welfare rights.
VIRTUE ETHICS (DE GUZMAN, 2017)
Virtue Ethics is a moral philosophy that teaches that an action is right if it is an action that a virtuous
person would perform in the same situations. According to the theory, a virtuous person is someone
who acts virtuously and people act virtuously if they possess and live the virtues. A virtue is a moral
characteristic that an individual need to live well.

Virtue ethics outs emphasis on developing good habits of character and avoiding bad character traits or
vices. It focuses on the character of the agent and describes right actions as those chosen and
performed by a suitably virtuous person.

Virtue ethicists, such as Aristotle, hold that people live their lives trying to develop their faculties to the
fullest extent. We have many faculties to develop such as intellectual, physical, social, moral, and so
on. Developing one's moral capacity to the fullest is pursuing ethical excellence, which is displayed by
the virtues.
ARISTOTLE ETHICS
At least two (2) of Aristotle's works specifically concern morality, the Eudemian Ethics and the Nicomachean Ethics. But since
only a few have studied the former, the Nicomachean Ethics has been regarded as the Ethics of Aristotle since the beginning of
the Christian era. Three general descriptions, which are interrelated, can be used to depict Aristotle's ethics. First, his ethical
system may be termed "self-realizationism." In his philosophy, when someone acts in line with his nature or end ('telos') and
thus realizes his full potential, he does moral and will be happy. Aristotle's view is also of a type known as eudaimonistic. As
such, it focuses on happiness (eudaimonia), or the good for man, and how to obtain it. Finally, his moral philosophy is aretoic,
or virtue-based. Whereas act-oriented ethics is focused mainly on what we should do, a virtue ethics is interested basically in
what we should be, that is, the character or the sort of person we should struggle to become.
Aristotle's “Telos”. A “telos” is an end or purpose. Aristotle believed that the essence or essential nature of beings, including
humans, lay not at their cause (or beginning) but at their end (“telos”).
Happiness and Virtues. Aristotle believed that the ultimate human goal is self-realization. This entails achieving one's natural
purpose by functioning or living consistently with human nature. Accomplishing it, in turn, produces happiness; whereas inability
to realize it leads to sadness, frustration, and ultimately to poor life. It therefore behooves us to act in accordance with our
nature to be content and complete. Ethics, for Aristotle, is the inquiry into the human good. This is to say that the purpose of
studying ethics is to make ourselves good, though Aristotle assumes that we already want to become good. This human good is
eudaimonia or happiness.
Virtue as Habit. Aristotle's idea of happiness should also be understood in the sense of human flourishing. This flourishing is
attained by the habitual practice of moral and intellectual excellences, or 'virtues'. Related to self-realization, acting in line with
virtues is acting in accordance with reason. The function of human being, accordingly, consists in activities which manifest the
best states of his rational aspect, that is the virtues.
 RHOMAS ACQUINAS ETHICS
Also called the Angelic Doctor and the Prince of Scholastics, Thomas Aquinas is an Italian philosopher and theologian who
ranks among the most important thinkers of the medieval time period.

In Ethics, Aquinas depends so heavily on Aristotle. Like the Greek philosopher, Aquinas believes that all actions are
directed towards ends and that happiness is the final end. Aquinas thinks that happiness consists in activities in accordance
with virtue. Aquinas declared that ultimate happiness is not attainable in this life, for happiness in the present life remains
imperfect. True happiness, then, is to be found only in the souls of the blessed in heaven or in beatitude with God.

The Natural Law. Central also in Aquinas ethics is his typology of laws. By the term 'law,' he means an ordinance of reason
for the common good, promulgated by someone who has care of the community. Aquinas' laws should also be understood
in terms of "rules and measures" for people's conduct and as "rational patterns or forms." Obedience to the law is thus
viewed also as participating in or being in conformity with the pattern or form.

For Aquinas, there are four primary types of law: the eternal, natural, human, and divine.

The (1) eternal law refers to the rational plan of God by which all creation is ordered. As God is the supreme ruler of
everything, the rational pattern or form of the universe that exists in His mind is the law that directs everything in the
universe to its appointed end. To this eternal law, everything in the universe is subject