7-Inference Theory for Predicate Calculus, Formulas With More Than One Quantifier.-23!09!2024
7-Inference Theory for Predicate Calculus, Formulas With More Than One Quantifier.-23!09!2024
Reference:
Predicate Calculus
• Predicate: A part of a declarative sentences describing the
properties of an object (subject) is called a predicate.
• The logic based upon the analysis of predicate in any
statement is called predicate logic.
• Let us consider the following statements:
1. John is a bachelor.
2. Smith is a bachelor.
• Here John, Smith are subjects and the part “is a bachelor” is a
predicate.
• Symbolic form:
1. J(x)
2. S(x)
NOTE: J,S are predicate variables and x is a subject. Small letter
for subject and capital letter for predicate.
The statement functions, variables,
quantifiers
The statement functions, variables,
quantifiers
a) Simple statement function of one variable is defined to
be an expression consisting of a predicate symbol & an
individual variable.
• Example: Let H be the predicate “is a mortal”, b the name
“Mr.Smith”. Then H(b) denote simple statement function.
b) Compound statement function: Obtained by combining
one or more simple statement function and logical
connectives.
• Example: Let M(x) be “x is a man” & H(x) be “x is a mortal”.
Then M(x)H(x), M(x) H(x), ˥ H(x), M(x)H(x), etc are
compound statement functions.
• NOTE: small letter represents individual or object variables
as well as names of objects.
Quantifiers
• It tells for how many elements a given predicate is
“True”.
• Refers to quantities such as “some” or “all”.
• Types:
1. - Universal quantifiers (for all).
2. - Existential quantifiers(there exist).
• Suppose that P is a one-place predicate.
– ∀x(P(x)) is a proposition, which is true if and only if P(a) is
true for every entity a in the domain of discourse for P .
– ∃x(P(x)) is a proposition which is true if and only if there is
at least one entity, a, in the domain of discourse for P for
which P(a) is true.
Predicate
• One-place predicate (one subject):
– Example: Pavithra is rich: R(x)
• Two-place predicate (two subjects):
– Example: Sam is taller than Ram: T(x,y)
• Examples of 3-place & 4-place predicates:
– Susan sits between Ram and Sita.
– Green and Miller played bridge against Joshn and Smith.
• n-place predicate is one with n number of objects.
1. Universal quantifiers: For all, for every, for
each, everything, each thing.
• Example: All cows are black.
• Paraphrase: x is a cow C(x), x is black B(x).
• Symbolic form: (x) (C(x) B(x))
2. Existential quantifiers: For some, some, there
exist, there is, there is atleast one.
• Example: There exist some cows, which are
black.
• Symbolic form: (x) (C(x) B(x))
1. All men are mortal.
Example-1
2. Every apple is red.
3. Any integer is either positive or negative.
• Paraphrase:
1a) For all x, if x is a man, then x is a mortal.
2a) For all x, if x is an apple, then x is red.
3a) For all x, if x is a integer, then x is either positive or negative.
• Symbolic form
• Finally;
1. There exists a man.
Example-2
2. Some men are clever.
3. Some real numbers are rational.
• Symbolic form
• Finally;
Example-3
Example-4
Example-5
• Solution:
Let z as a mother of y. So, x is a father of z & z is a
mother of y.
Now, symbolize predicate as;
(z) (P(z) F(x,z) M(z,y))
Example-6
Example-7
• The expression of type “All A are B” the correct connective
that should be used is conditional. On the other hand , for
symbolizing expression “Some A are B”, the correct
connective is conjunction.
• Example:
• Symbolize the statements:
a) “All men are giants”.
b) “Some men are giants”.
• Solution:
G(x): x is a giant.
M(x): x is a man
a) (x)(M(x)G(x))
b) (x)(M(x)G(x))
Example-8
• Translate each of the following sentences into a proposition using
predicate logic. Make up any predicates you need. State what each
predicate means & what its domain of discourse is.
(a) All crows are black.
(b) Any white bird is not a crow.
• Solution:
a. Let C(x) be “is a crow” and B(x) be “is black”. The domain of discourse for
both predicates is things.
(x) ( C(x) B(x) )
For all things which are crows, they are black.
b. Let L(x) be “is a bird”, C(x) be “is a crow”, and W(x) be “is white”. The
domain of discourse for all predicates is things.
(x) ( W(x) L(x) ˥C(x) )
For all things which are white birds, they are not crows.
Predicate formula
Predicate formula
• If P is a predicate variable & x1,x2,x3,…..xn are individual variables, then
P(x1,x2,x3,…..xn) denotes n-place predicate formula.
• It is called as Atomic formula of predicate calculus.
• Examples: R, Q(x), P(x,y), A(x,y,z), P(a,y), A(x,a,z)
Free & bound variables
Free and Bound Variable
• The scope of a quantifier in a formula P is the
quantifier itself & the sub-formula that
immediately follows the quantifier.
• Example:
a) y[P(y) H(x)]
b) y[F(y) x[F(x) G(x,y)]]
c) y[F(y) x[F(x)]] L(y)
Free and Bound Variable
• An occurrence of a variable x is bound in a
formula P iff it is in the scope of quantifier with
x.
B)
Universe of discourse
(domain or universe)
Universe of discourse
(domain or universe)
• The objects are the members of particular set or class. Such class is
called as universe. i.e., it is a set from which the variable can take
values.
• Example:
– If the discussion refers to human beings only, then the universe of discourse is
the class of human beings.
– In number theory, the universe of discourse could be numbers.
• The truth value of the statement depends on it.
– Example: Consider the predicate Q: x is less than 5 and statements (x)(Q(x)
and (x)(Q(x)
– Universe of discourse: (1) [-1,0,1,2,4]
(2) [3,-2,7,8,-2]
(3) [15,20,24]
Then (x)(Q(x) is true for the universe of discourse (1) and false for (2) & (3).
(x)(Q(x) is true for both (1) & (2) and false for (3).
Example-1
Symbolize the following sentences:
1.Some cats are not black
2.All politicians are clever
3.For every positive integer, there is a positive integer greater than it.
Solution:
1. X ε set of cats
P(x): x is black
x˥P(x)
2. X ε set of politicians
P(x): x is clever
x P(x)
3. x,y ε z+
P(x,y) : x is greater than y
x y P(y,x)
Inference theory
Valid formulas
&
Equivalences
Valid formulas & Equivalences
Equivalences:
• Let A & B are predicate formulas defined over common
universe ‘E’. A and B are said to be equivalent (AB) if and
only if they have same truth value in all possible case.
• Example: x{2,4,6,8}, Q(x): x>5, Then (x)Q(x) ˥(x) ˥ Q(x)
• Valid formula: A formula ‘A’ is said to be valid in E, if for every
assignment of object names from E to the corresponding
variables, the resulting statements have the truth value ‘T’
and is denoted as A.
• Validity of the formula is determined by;
– Truth table.
– Derivation
Form valid formulas of predicate calculus from tautologies
• Consider the following tautology of statements;
P ˥P, PQ ˥P Q
• Substitute the formulas (x)R(x) and (x)S(x) for P & Q
respectively;
((x)R(x)) ˥((x)R(x))
((x)R(x)) ((x)S(x)) ˥ ((x)R(x)) ((x)S(x))
Thus, any substitution instance of tautology is also a tautology in
the statement calculus.
• Substitution instance, in which any variable in the formula is
consistently replaced any other formula throughout.
• Prime(simple/atomic) formula: A predicate formula without
any connectives.
• In general, the tautology of statement calculus remains a valid
formula of predicate calculus when prime formulas are
substituted for statement variables throughout the formula.
• Thus, all implications & equivalences of the statement
calculus discussed in module 3 (refer next slide) can be
considered as implications & equivalences of predicate
calculus in which the statement variables are replaced by
prime predicate formulas.
• Let A(x), B(x), and C(x,y) denote any prime formulas of the
predicate calculus. Then the following are valid formulas of
the predicate calculus;
˥ ˥A(x) A(x) E1
C(x,y) B(x) B(x) C(x,y) E2
A(x) B(x) ˥ A(x) B(x) E3
Implications
(x) (A(x) B(x)) (x) A(x) (x) B(x) (x) (A B(x)) A (x)B(x)
1 ˥[((x)P(x)) ((x)Q(x))] P -
5 ˥P(a) ES (3)
6 ˥Q(α) US (4)
7 (x)(P(x) Q(x)) P -