CSE 321

SOIL MECHANICS II

Edwin K. Kanda, PhD

Outline
Shear strength of soils
Lateral Earth Pressures
Retaining and sheet pile walls
Stability of slopes and earth dams
Characteristics and behavior of tropical soils
Soil exploration and investigation
Soil improvement
Assessment
CAT and Practicals 30%
End Semester Exams 70%
Reference
Geotechnical Engineering (2006), 3rd Ed, by Venkatramaiah,
New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers, 3rd ed
Elements of Soil Mechanics (1988), 7th Ed, by Smith , and
Smith, Blackwell Science
Geotechnical Engineering Handbook (2011), by J. Ross
Publishing Das, B (ed)
Geotechnical Engineering by Murthy , Marcel Dekker
publishers
Principles of Geotechnical Engineering (2014) by Das and
Sobhan
Craig’s Soil Mechanics (2004), 7 th Ed
Soil Mechanics Fundamentals (2015) by Budhu, Wiley
Blackwell Publishers
Shear Strength of Soils
 Introduction
Shear strength is the ability of soils to remain in equilibrium when
its surface is not level
It is the ability to resist sliding along internal surfaces within a
mass
Soils in liquid form have no shear strength
Soils in liquid form have shear strengths less than that of concrete
and steel
The stability of a cut, the slope of an earth dam, the foundations of
structures, the natural slopes of hillsides and other structures built
on soil depend upon the shearing resistance offered by the soil
along the probable surfaces of slippage.
There is hardly a problem in the field of engineering which does
not involve the shear properties of the soil in some manner or the
 Shear Failure under Foundation Load Slope Stability Failure as an Example of
Shearing Along Internal Surface

At failure, shear stress along the failure surface reaches the shear strength of the soil
Introduction …
Soil derives its shearing strength from the following :
(1) Resistance due to the interlocking of particles.
(2) Frictional resistance between the individual soil grains, which
may be sliding friction, rolling friction, or both.
(3) Adhesion between soil particles or ‘cohesion’.
1 and 2 are for cohesionless (granular) soils while 2 and 3 are for
cohesive soils (clays)
Highly plastic clays derive their shear strength from 3
Most natural soil deposits are partly cohesive and partly granular
and as such, may fall into the 1 and 2 categories from shearing
strength perspective
Cohesion (C), is a measure of the forces that cement particles
of soils

Granular (cohesionless) soils

Cohesive soils
Friction between bodies (Concept of shear strength)
When two solid bodies are in contact with each other, the
frictional resistance available is dependent upon the normal
force between the two and an intrinsic property known as the
‘Coefficient of friction’.
The coefficient of friction depends upon the nature and the
In a) R = W, no sliding
condition of the surfaces in contact In (b) if a small force , H is applied
horizontally, then the reaction, R will
not act vertical but inclined at an
angle α to the vertical
Considering Equilibrium of forces,
R = H = R sin α (Horizontal component)
R = W = R cos α (vertical component)
α is called angle of obliquity
When α =  sliding is imminent
 Is angle of friction
 P
Shearing force, F is proportional to normal force, P
F = P tan 
If A is the contact area then
Shear strength,
Fa
α Fr
Therefore,

Applicable to granular soils

Friction…

The characteristics  and  ar

properties of the materials in
contact and they are
independent
of the applied forces and are
fairly constant

The maximum slope in

which loose cohesionless
material is stable is
called angle of repose
Angle of repose
Angle of Repose determined by:
Particle size (higher for large particles)
Particle shape (higher for angular shapes)
Shear strength (higher for higher shear strength)
Factors affecting shear strength
Soil composition: mineralogy, grain size and grain size
distribution, shape of particles, pore fluid type and content, ions
on grain and in pore fluid.
Initial state: loose, dense, overconsolidated, normally
consolidated, stiff, soft, etc.
Structure: Refers to the arrangement of particles within the
soil mass; the manner in which the particles are packed or
distributed. Features such as layers, voids, pockets,
cementation, etc, are part of the structure.
Behaviour of soils under shear
Definitions
Overburden: the overburden pressure at a point in a soil mass is the
weight of material above it
The effective overburden is the overburden pressure less pore water
pressure due to height of water extending from the point up to the
water table
Normally consolidated clay: Clay which at no given time in its history
has been subjected to pressure greater than its existing overburden
pressure
Over consolidated clay : Clay which at its time in history has been
subjected to pressure greater than its existing overburden pressure
 Pre-consolidation pressure: The maximum pressure exerted on
overconsolidated clay before it is relieved
Overconsolidation ratio : The ratio of the pre-consolidation pressure to
its existing effective overburden pressure
Coulomb equation
In soils which are not granular, an additional strength is due to
cohesion between particles
It is therefore, necessary to separate the shear strength of soils
into two components ; due to cohesion and due to friction
Coulomb (1776), a French Engineer, proposed the shear
equation as
𝑆=𝑐 +𝜎 𝑡𝑎𝑛 
This equation expresses the assumption that the cohesion c is
independent of the normal pressure σ acting on the plane of
failure.
 At zero normal pressure, the shear strength of the soil is
expressed as
s=c
 In Coulomb's equation c and  are empirical parameters, which depend upon
1.The past history of the soil.
2.The initial state of the soil, i.e., whether it is saturated or unsaturated.
3.The permeability characteristics of the soil.
4.The conditions of drainage allowed to take place during the test.
 Since c and  in Coulomb's Equation depend upon many factors, c is termed as
apparent cohesion and  the angle of shearing resistance.

For cohesionless soil c =

0, then Coulomb's
equation becomes

𝑆=𝜎 𝑡𝑎𝑛
 Example 1
What is the shearing strength of soil along a horizontal plane at a
depth of 4 m in a deposit of sand having the following properties:
Angle of internal friction,  = 35°
Dry unit weight, yd = 17 kN/m3
Specific gravity, Gs = 2.7.
Assume the ground water table is at a depth of 2.5 m from the
ground surface.
Also find the change in shear strength when the water table rises to
the ground surface
Solution
 Example 2
Calculate the potential shear strength on a horizontal plane at a
depth of 3 m below the surface in a formation of cohesionless
soil when the water table is at a depth of 3.5 m. The degree of
saturation may be taken as 0.5 on the average. Void ratio =
0.50; grain specific gravity = 2.70; angle of internal friction =
30°.
What will be the modified value of shear strength if the water
table reaches the ground surface
Mohr –Coulomb Failure Criteria
This theory states that a material fails because of a critical
combination of normal stress and shear stress, and not from
their either maximum normal or shear stress alone
 Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criteria

Recall Mohr’s Circle for 2-D stresses from Strength of Materials

Mohr-Coulomb Theory—failure envelopes

Coulomb envelopes for pure sand and for pure clay

Methods of determining Shear strength
The shear strength parameters c and  of soils either in the
undisturbed or remolded states may be determined by any of
the following methods:
Laboratory methods
(a) Direct or shear box test
(b) Triaxial compression test
Field method:
a) Vane shear test
b) Penetration Test
 Shear parameters of soils in-situ
The laboratory or the field method that has to be chosen in a particular case
depends upon the type of soil and the accuracy required
Wherever the strength characteristics of the soil in-situ are required,
laboratory tests may be used provided undisturbed samples can be extracted
from the stratum
However, soils are subject to disturbance either during sampling or extraction
from the sampling tubes in the laboratory even though soil particles possess
cohesion.
It is practically impossible to obtain undisturbed samples of cohesionless soils
and highly pre-consolidated clay soils.
Laboratory methods may, therefore, be used only in such cases where fairly
good undisturbed samples can be obtained.
Where it is not possible to extract undisturbed samples from the natural soil
stratum, any one of the following methods may have to be used according to
convenience and judgment :
1. Laboratory tests on remolded samples which could at best simulate field
Shear Strength Parameters of Compacted Fills
The strength characteristics of fills which are to be
constructed, such as earth embankments, are generally found in
a laboratory.
Remolded samples simulating the proposed density and water
content of the fill materials are made in the laboratory and
tested.
However, the strength characteristics of existing fills may have
to be determined either by laboratory or field methods keeping
in view the limitations of each method
Direct Shear Test
 The direct shear test is the oldest and simplest form of shear test arrangement
 A sample of soil is placed into the shear box.
 The size of the box normally used for clays and sands is 6 x 6 cm and the sample is 2
cm thick. A large box of size 30 x 30 cm with sample thickness of 15 cm is
sometimes used for gravelly soils.
 The soils used for the test are either undisturbed samples or remolded. If
undisturbed, the specimen has to be carefully trimmed and fitted into the box.
 If remolded samples are required, the soil is placed into the box in layers at the
required initial water content and tamped to the required dry density
 After the specimen is placed in the box, and all the other necessary adjustments are
made, a known normal load is applied.
 Then a shearing force is applied
 The normal load is held constant throughout the test but the shearing force is
applied at a constant rate of strain
 The shearing displacement is recorded by a dial gauge
Data logger system in direct shear box apparatus
Determination of shear strength parameters for a dry sand using the
results of direct shear tests
Drained Direct Shear Test on Saturated Sand
and Clay
In the direct shear test arrangement, the shear box that contains the soil
specimen is generally kept inside a container that can be filled with water to
saturate the specimen.
A drained test is made on a saturated soil specimen by keeping the rate of
loading slow enough so that the excess pore water pressure generated in the
soil is dissipated completely by drainage.
Pore water from the specimen is drained through two porous stones
Because the hydraulic conductivity of sand is high, the excess pore water
pressure generated due to loading (normal and shear) is dissipated quickly.
Hence, for an ordinary loading rate, essentially full drainage conditions exist.
The friction angle, , obtained from a drained direct shear test of saturated
sand will be the same as that for a similar specimen of dry sand.
The hydraulic conductivity of clay is very small compared with that of sand.
When a normal load is applied to a clay soil specimen, a sufficient length of
time must elapse for full consolidation—that is, for dissipation of excess pore
water pressure.
 Residual shear strength in clay is similar to ultimate shear strength in sand

Results of a drained direct shear test Failure envelope for clay obtained from
on an over-consolidated clay drained
direct shear tests
Example 3
Direct shear tests were performed on a dry, sandy soil. The
size of the specimen was 50 mm. 50 mm. 19 mm. Test results
are as follows:

Find the shear stress parameters.

Plot shear stresses against normal stress

 = 32o

c=0
Example 4
Clean and dry sand samples were tested in a large shear box,
25 cm × 25 cm and the following results were obtained :
Normal load (kN) 5 10 15
Peak shear load (kN) 5 10 15
Ultimate shear load (kN) 2.9 5.8 8.7
Determine the angle of shearing resistance of the sand in the
dense and loose states.
The value of  obtained from the peak stress represents the angle of
shearing resistance of the sand in its initial compacted state; that from the
ultimate stress corresponds to the sand when loosened by the shearing act
The area of the shear box = 25 × 25 = 625 cm2 =
0.0625 m2.
Normal stress in the first test = 5/0.0625 kN/m2 = 80
Therefore
kN/m2
 Example 5
Following are the results of four drained direct shear tests on
an overconsolidated clay:
Diameter of specimen = 50 mm and Height of specimen = 25
mm

Determine the relationships for peak shear strength and residual shear
strength
 Area of specimen (A)
( )
2
𝜋 50 2
𝐴= × =0.0019634 𝑚
4 1000
Therefore
Plot shear stress vs Normal stress
Demerits of direct shear test
The stress conditions are complex primarily because of the non-
uniform distribution of normal and shear stresses on the plane.
There is virtually no control of the drainage of the soil specimen
as the water content of a saturated soil changes rapidly with
stress.
The area of the sliding surface at failure will be less than the
original area of the soil specimen and strictly speaking, this
should be accounted for.
The ridges of the metal gratings embedded on the top and
bottom of the specimen, causes distortion of the specimen to
some degree.
The effect of lateral restraint by the side walls of the shear box is
likely to affect the results.
 Triaxial shear Test
 The triaxial shear test is one of the most reliable methods available for determining
shear strength parameters.
 Introduced by Casagrande and Terzaghi in 1936
 In this test, a soil specimen about 36 mm in diameter and 76 mm (3 in.) long generally is
used.
 The specimen is encased by a thin rubber membrane and placed inside a plastic
cylindrical chamber that usually is filled with water or glycerine.
 The specimen is subjected to a confining pressure by compression of the fluid in the
chamber.
 To cause shear failure in the specimen, one must apply axial stress (sometimes called
deviator stress) through a vertical loading ram.
 This stress can be applied in one of two ways:
1. Application of dead weights or hydraulic pressure in equal increments until the
specimen fails.
Axial deformation of the specimen resulting from the load applied through the ram is
measured by a dial gauge
2. Application of axial deformation at a constant rate by means of a geared or hydraulic
loading press. This is a strain-controlled test.
Principle and stress conditions of triaxial compression test
triaxial test equipment
Triaxial shear test apparatus
Mohr’s circles during triaxial test

Mohr’s circles for triaxial tests

with different cell pressures
and strength envelope
 Merits of Triaxial test
Failure occurs along the weakest plane unlike along the predetermined
plane in the case of direct shear test.
The stress distribution on the failure plane is much more uniform than it
is in the direct shear
Complete control of the drainage conditions is possible with the triaxial
compression test; this would enable one to simulate the field conditions
better.
The possibility to vary the cell pressure or confining pressure also affords
another means to simulate the field conditions for the sample, so that the
results are more meaningfully interpreted.
Precise measurements of pore water pressure and volume changes during
the test are possible.
The state of stress within the specimen is known on all planes and not
only on a predetermined failure plane as it is with direct shear tests.
The state of stress on any plane is capable of being determined not only at
failure but also at any earlier stage.
Types of triaxial tests
Consolidated-drained test or drained test (CD test)
Consolidated-undrained test (CU test)
Unconsolidated-undrained test or undrained test (UU test)
σ1 - Vertical (axial) Stress
This also known as the Major Principal Stress

Can also be call σv

σ3 - Confining Pressure (think of this as cell

pressure)

This is also known as the Minor Principal Stress

Can also be called σh

U - Pore Pressure

Also known as Uw (Pore Water Pressure (P.W.P))

σ1 – σ3 – Deviator Stress (the stress due to the

axial load applied to the specimen in excess of the
confining pressure)
Stress Conditions in a Typical Triaxial Test
 Unconsolidated Undrained Test
Drainage is not permitted at any stage of the test, that is, either
before the test during the application of the normal stress or
during the test when the shear stress is applied.
Hence no time is allowed for dissipation of pore water pressure
and consequent consolidation of the soil;
Also, no significant volume changes are expected.
Usually, 5 to 10 minutes may be adequate for the whole test,
because of the shortness of drainage path.
However, undrained tests are often performed only on soils of
low permeability.
This is the most unfavourable condition which might occur in
geotechnical engineering practice and hence is simulated in
shear testing.
Since a relatively small time is allowed for the testing till failure,
it is also called the ‘Quick test.’ It is designated UU, Q, or Qu test.
 Consolidated Undrained Test
Drainage is permitted fully in this type of test during the
application of the normal stress and no drainage is permitted
during the application of the shear stress.
Thus volume changes do not take place during shear and excess
pore pressure develops.
Usually, after the soil is consolidated under the applied normal
stress to the desired degree, 5 to 10 minutes may be adequate for
the test.
This test is also called ‘consolidated quick test’ and is designated
CU or Qc test,
These conditions are also common in geotechnical engineering
practice.
 Drained Test
Drainage is permitted fully before and during the test, at
every stage.
The soil is consolidated under the applied normal stress and
is tested for shear by applying the shear stress also very
slowly while drainage is permitted at every stage.
Practically no excess pore pressure develops at any stage and
volume changes take place.
It may require 4 to 6 weeks to complete a single test of this
kind in the case of cohesive soils, although not so much time
is required in the case of cohesionless soils as the latter drain
off quickly.
This test is seldom conducted on cohesive soils except for
purposes of research.

 Choice of triaxial test type
The shear parameters c and φ vary with the type of test or
drainage conditions.
The suffixes u, cu, and d are used for the parameters obtained
from the UU-, CU- and CD-tests respectively.
The choice as to which of these tests is to be used depends upon
the types of soil and the problem on hand.
For problems of short-term stability of foundations, excavations
and earth dams UU-tests are appropriate.
For problems of long-term stability, either CU-test or CD tests are
appropriate, depending upon the drainage conditions in the field
Field Problem Type of Analysis Type of Test
First Time Slope Failure Effective Stress CU or CD Triaxial

Cut Slope Failure Effective Stress CU Triaxial

Earth Dams Total Stress UU triaxial
Effective Stress CU Triaxial
Triaxial permeability

Tunnel Linings Total Stress UU triaxial

Effective Stress CU Triaxial
Typical triaxial test results

Types of failure in triaxial test

 Unconfined Compression Test
This is a special case of a triaxial compression test; the confining pressure
being zero.
A cylindrical soil specimen, usually of the same standard size as that for the
triaxial compression, is loaded axially by a compressive force until failure
takes place.
Since the specimen is laterally unconfined, the test is known as ‘unconfined
compression test’.
No rubber membrane is necessary to encase the specimen.
The axial or vertical compressive stress is the major principal stress and the
other two principal stresses are zero.
This test may be conducted on undisturbed or remoulded cohesive soils.
It cannot be conducted on coarse-grained soils such as sands and gravels as
these cannot stand without lateral support.
Also the test is essentially a quick or undrained one because it is assumed that
there is no loss of moisture during the test, which is performed fairly fast.
Owing to its simplicity, it is often used as a field test, besides being used in the
laboratory.
Unconfined compression apparatus
Mohr’s Circle for Unconfined Compression Test

The unconfined compression test is mostly found useful in the

determination of the shearing strength of saturated clays for which
φ is negligible or zero, under undrained conditions thus
Example 6
The Mohr Circle for total stresses and strength envel

From diagram , u = 7o
Example 7
 Solution
The first step is to draw a stress circle that represents the condition of the
first test
σ3 = 100 kN/m2 and σ1 = 188 + 100 = 288 kN/m2
The line representing u = 0 is drawn on the circe
The draw the stress circle with σ3 = 200 kN/m2 and tangential to the strength envelop
Where the this circle cuts the normal stress axis give the value σ 1 = 388 kN/m2
The additional axial stress required for failure =σ1 - σ3 = 388 – 200 = 188 kN/m2
From the figure cu= 94 kN/m2
Numerically, this value could have been obtained if it is recalled that c u= (σ1 - σ3)/2 when u = 0
Example 8
Solution
The circles are drawn first then the common tangents are
constructed to obtain the strength envelop
From the graph, it can be seen that the soil is cohesionless
By measurement ’ = 29o