8 Geometry as Shape

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SECTION Three-Dimensional
8.3 Figures

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

What do you think?
• What do pyramids and cones have in common?

• How are properties of two-dimensional objects and three-

dimensional objects related?

• How can you represent three-dimensional objects in two-

dimensional space?

3
3D figures
We had began with simple closed curves that partitioned a
plane into three disjoint sets: the curve, inside, and outside.
Though we will not rigorously define simple closed
surfaces, we can say that they partition space (three
dimensions) into three disjoint sets: the surface itself,
inside, and outside (Figure 8.103).

Figure 8.103

4
3D figures continued

We will use the term space figure to describe any three-

dimensional object.

We will use the term polyhedron (the plural is polyhedra)

to describe those simple closed surfaces that are
composed of polygonal regions.

We will use the term solid to describe the union of any

space figure and its interior.

5
3D figures - Polyhedra continued

Component parts
Just as the component parts of polygons have special
names, so do those of polyhedra.

Each of the separate polygonal regions of a polyhedron is

called a face; for example, square ABFE is a face of the
cube in Figure 8.104.

Figure 8.104

6
3D figures - Polyhedra continued

The sides of each of the faces are

called edges; for example, is an edge
of the cube in Figure 8.104.
Figure 8.104

The vertices of the polyhedron are simply the vertices of

the polygonal regions that form the polyhedron; for
example, E and F are vertices of the cube in Figure 8.104.

7
3D figures - Polyhedra continued

Convex and concave

Just as polygons can be convex or concave, so can polyhedra.
Before reading the definition of a convex polyhedron, think
back to the definition of a convex polygon and see whether you
can modify that definition for three-dimensional objects.
A polyhedron is convex if and only if any line segment
connecting two points of the polyhedron is either on the
surface or in the interior of the polyhedron (Figure 8.105).

Figure 8.105
8
Families of Polyhedra: Prisms

9
Families of Polyhedra: Prisms
Now let us investigate some of the families of polyhedra.
Take a few minutes to examine the figures in Figure 8.106.
How are these figures alike? How are they different?

Figure 8.106

All of these figures have at least two faces that are parallel;
some students would say that the top and bottom faces are
parallel.

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Families of Polyhedra: Prisms
And the faces are all polygons. All of these figures are
called prisms. We use the word prism to describe all
polyhedra that have two parallel faces called bases that
are congruent polygons.

It is a convention to call the other faces of prisms lateral

faces. Even if we turn these prisms on their sides, the
bases are still the parallel polygons, even though they are
now on the side.

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Families of Polyhedra: Prisms

In all prisms, the lateral faces are parallelograms. In some

cases, all of the lateral faces are rectangles.

How would you describe the differences between those

prisms whose lateral faces are nonrectangular
parallelograms and those whose lateral faces are
rectangles?

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Families of Polyhedra: Prisms
In the latter case, the plane of the base DABE and the
plane of the lateral faces are perpendicular (Figure 8.108).

Figure 8.108

We could also say that the dihedral angle formed by either

base and any lateral face is a right angle.

13
Families of Polyhedra: Prisms
(A dihedral angle is simply a three-dimensional angle—
that is, an angle whose vertex is a line and whose sides are
planes.)

Thus we can define a right prism as a prism in which the

lateral faces are rectangles.

Alternatively, we could define a right prism as a prism in

which the angle formed by either base and any lateral face
is a right dihedral angle.

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Families of Polyhedra: Prisms
A prism that is not a right prism is an oblique prism
(Figure 8.107).

Figure 8.107

Long before they study formal geometry, many children

know the names for two special kinds of prisms.

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Families of Polyhedra: Prisms
Although this is not a term mathematicians use, what we
call a box is actually a prism in which all six faces are
rectangles. If all six faces are squares, we call the figure a
cube (Figure 8.108).

Figure 8.108

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Pyramids

17
Pyramids
Let us consider now another family of polyhedra. Take a
few minutes to examine the figures in Figure 8.109.

Figure 8.109

How are these figures alike? How are they different?

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Pyramids
We use the word pyramid to describe those polyhedra
whose base is a polygon and whose faces are triangles
that have a common vertex.

That common vertex is called the apex of the pyramid.

An alternative way to think of a pyramid is to start with any

polygon and a point above the plane of the polygon. Now
connect that point to each vertex of the polygon.

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Pyramids
Most of the pyramids you have seen have square bases.
However, the base can be any polygon. A pyramid is
named according to its base: triangular pyramid, square
pyramid, and so on.

Again, the base does not have to be on the bottom.

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Investigation 8.3c – Prisms and Pyramids
Look at the set of prisms in Figure 8.107 and the set of
pyramids in Figure 8.109. Note that these are just some
examples of prisms and pyramids. What attributes do all
prisms and pyramids have in common?

Figure 8.107
Figure 8.109

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Investigation 8.3c – Discussion
In all prisms and all pyramids:

There are bases, although prisms have two and pyramids

have one.

There are faces, edges, and vertices.

The bases and faces are polygons.

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Regular Polyhedra

23
Regular Polyhedra
In Section 8.2, we discussed regular polygons. How might
we define a regular polyhedron?

One of the ways we classified polygons was by the number

of sides: triangles, quadrilaterals, pentagons, hexagons,
and so on. We could speak of a regular hexagon and a
nonregular hexagon.

However, that doesn’t work with polyhedra. Do you see

why?

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Regular Polyhedra
We define a regular polyhedron as a convex polyhedron
in which the faces are congruent regular polygons and in
which the numbers of edges that meet at each vertex are
the same.

Which of the prisms and pyramids we have discussed so

far do you think might be regular polyhedra?

A cube is a regular polyhedron. A triangular pyramid

composed of equilateral triangles is a regular polyhedron
and has a special name, tetrahedron.

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Regular Polyhedra
The origin of the name is Greek: tetra (“four”) and hedron
(“face”).

A fact that surprises many people is that there are not a

large number of regular polyhedra.

In fact, there are only five regular polyhedra: the

tetrahedron, the cube, the octahedron (with 8 triangular
faces), the dodecahedron (with 12 pentagonal faces), and
the icosahedron (with 20 triangular faces)

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Regular Polyhedra
The solids made from the regular polyhedra are called
Platonic solids after the Greek philosopher Plato.
Over 2000 years ago (long before we knew about atoms),
many Greek philosopher-scientists believed that there were
four basic elements from which all things arose: earth, air,
fire, and water.
Some of the Greeks believed that the smallest particle of
earth had the form of a cube, the smallest particle of air
had the form of an octahedron, the smallest particle of fire
had the form of a tetrahedron, and the smallest particle of
water had the form of an icosahedron.

27
Regular Polyhedra
The dodecahedron was associated with the universe,
probably because it was the last solid discovered, although
it has been speculated that it is associated with the
universe because it has 12 faces and there are 12 signs in
the zodiac.
These regular polyhedra occur in nature:
• Crystals of salt and of pyrite are formed in the shape of a
cube.
• Crystals of chrome alum are formed in the shape of a
tetrahedron.
• Crystals of pyrite have been found in the shape of an
octahedron.
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Regular Polyhedra
• Skeletons of microscopic sea animals have been found
in the shape of a dodecahedron and in the shape of an
icosahedron (Figure 8.111).

Figure 8.111

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Investigation 8.3d – Features of Three-Dimensional Objects

Look at the picture of a cube and a ramp, or triangular

prism (Figure 8.112).

Figure 8.112

In what ways are they “the same”? That is, what

characteristics do they have in common that not all three-
dimensional objects have? In what ways are they different?

30
Investigation 8.3d – Discussion
Some of the things they have in common:
All the faces (sides) are polygons.
In both cases, at least some of the sides are
quadrilaterals.
At least one pair of sides are congruent and parallel
to each other. In the ramp, the two triangles on the
front and back are parallel and congruent.
Some of the differences between them:
In the cube, there are an even number of faces, and
opposite faces are congruent.

31
Investigation 8.3d – Discussion continued

In the ramp, only the triangle faces are opposite. The other
three faces are noncongruent rectangles.

The numbers of faces, edges, and vertices are different.

The cube: 6 faces, 12 edges, 8 vertices
The ramp: 5 faces, 9 edges, 6 vertices

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 Connecting Two-Dimensional
Representations To Three-
Dimensional Objects

33
Connecting Two-Dimensional Representations To Three-Dimensional Objects

There are many ways in which the two-dimensional and

three-dimensional worlds connect. All buildings, from small
sheds to large skyscrapers, are designed before they are
built.

To enable the architects and the engineers to

communicate, blueprints are designed and studied.

So that the electricians, plumbers, and other members of

the building team will know where to place the appropriate
wires and fixtures, other kinds of drawings are used.

34
Connecting Two-Dimensional Representations To Three-Dimensional Objects

Each of these drawings requires someone to think about

the object in three dimensions and then represent that
information two dimensionally, although computer
simulation is changing the nature of these representations.
In this section, we will examine several ways in which the
two-dimensional and three-dimensional worlds connect:
simple (isometric) drawings, cross sections, and nets.
First, we will focus on simple buildings, the kind that can be
made with cubes. One powerful investigation is for children
to build block buildings and then give directions for making
the buildings.

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Investigation 8.3f – Different Views of a Building

Look at the building below.

Following are the profile views of the building from the

front, from the right, from the back, from the left, and from
the top (imagine flying over the building as you approach it
from the front).

36
Investigation 8.3f – Different Views of a Buildingcontinued

Look at those views. Can you see how those views have
been made? For example, can you see why the front view
consists of three cubes stacked on one another and then a
stack of two cubes to the right?

Look again at those views. What do you see? The question

here: Do we need all five views in order to make the figure?
Why or why not?

37
Investigation 8.3f – Discussion
As you may have noticed, the right and left views are mirror
images of each other. Similarly, the front and back views
are mirror images of each other.

Do you think this is true just in this case, in some cases, or

all cases?

It turns out that it will be true in all cases. Thus we can cut
out two pieces of information. For the sake of convention,
we will denote the front and right-side views.

38
Investigation 8.3f – Discussion continued

What about the top? Is that really necessary? For example,

if you were given only the front and right-side views of the
building above, could you make the building?

There is another building that has the same front and right-
side views as the one pictured earlier. It is shown below.

39
Investigation 8.3h – Cross Sections
A cross section of a solid is what the exposed face would look like if we
sliced through the solid. Because there are many ways that we might
slice through a solid, the shape of the cross section will depend on the
nature of the slice.

This investigation strengthens your spatial visualization skills in three

dimensions. Figure 8.115 through Figure 8.117 below illustrate three
different cross sections of a cube. In each case, describe the shape of
the cross section.

Figure 8.115 Figure 8.116 Figure 8.117 40

Investigation 8.3h – Cross Sections continued

One way to visualize the task is to imagine that the cubes

are made of clay and someone is cutting slices of the cube
with piano wire.

The piano wire is indicated by a line segment, and the two

rays represent the handles that the cutter holds onto when
slicing through the cube.

Slicing three-dimensional figures and describing the two-

dimensional figure that results is in the seventh grade
according to the Common Core State Standards. (Where is
it in the TEKS?)
41
Investigation 8.3h – Discussion
In the first case, the cross section is a square.

In the second case, the cross section is a rectangle.

In the third case, the cross section is a triangle.

There are different ways of slicing that will result in different

rectangles and triangles.
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Connecting Two-Dimensional Representations To Three-Dimensional Objects

Nets
One last connection between two- and three-dimensional
figures that we will explore here is nets. Nets are explored
in sixth grade, according to the Common Core State
Standards.
A net is a two-dimensional representation of a three-
dimensional object, in which:
1. Every face of the object is represented.
2. If you cut out the net and fold along the edges, it will fold
up into the three-dimensional object.

43
Connecting Two-Dimensional Representations To Three-Dimensional Objects

The figure on the left in Figure 8.118 is a net of a cube,

whereas the figure on the right is not.

Figure 8.118

If you fold the first figure up, you will get a cube. Visualizing this can be
a challenge, so you are encouraged to trace the figures, cut them out,
and see if you can fold them.
I have labeled the faces: Bo, T, F, Ba, S, and S for bottom, top, front,
back, and sides. Does that help? In the second case, if you cut out the
figure, it won’t fold up.
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Investigation 8.3i – Nets
One of the nets that many people experience regularly
(especially if they recycle) is a flattened cereal box. One
net for a standard cereal box is shown in Figure 8.119.

Figure 8.119

What do you notice about this net? This includes, but is not
restricted to, the question “What attributes and
characteristics do you see?”
45
Investigation 8.3i – Discussion
One important observation is that the net has six faces. If
you recall, cubes have six faces. The cereal box is a
rectangular prism, and thus it has many of the attributes of
a cube.

Another observation is there are three pairs of congruent

faces.

If we think of a cereal box, we think of front, back, sides,

top, and bottom.

46
Investigation 8.3i – Discussion continued

If we label those faces on our net (Figure 8.120), this leads

to another observation: Two congruent faces are never side
by side. Do you see why?

Figure 8.120

47
Investigation 8.3i – Discussion continued

A good way to deepen your understanding of the

connection between the three-dimensional and two-
dimensional worlds is to sketch several other nets for the
cereal box.

One thing that makes this task easier is to realize that each
face of the box is connected to three other faces.

48
Investigation 8.3i – Discussion continued

Thus we can take our original net and slide the bottom
underneath the back, as shown in Figure 8.121(a)—it still
folds up.

Figure 8.121 (a)

In the original net, the top and bottom were connected to

the front.

49
Investigation 8.3i – Discussion continued

However, on the actual box, they are also connected to the

sides. Figure 8.121(b) represents that connection.

Figure 8.121 (b)

50
Investigation 8.3i – Discussion continued

Finally, we can move the back so that it is connected to the

bottom, as shown in Figure 8.121(c).

Figure 8.121 (c)

My students have worked on this problem and have found

many, many nets!

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Cylinders, Cones, Spheres

52
Cylinders, Cones, Spheres
The polyhedra we have defined thus far have all been
simple, closed surfaces in which all the faces are polygons.
There are three other kinds of three-dimensional objects
that are commonly found and that elementary
schoolchildren study.

Cylinders, cones, and spheres are related to polyhedra we

have studied. Before we examine these three, stop for a
moment and consider which polyhedra are related to
cylinders, which to cones, and which to spheres.

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Cylinders, Cones, Spheres
Think of a prism with more and more faces (see the prism
at the left in Figure 8.122).

Figure 8.122

54
Cylinders, Cones, Spheres
At some point, a prism with a lot of faces begins to look
more like a cylinder than like a prism. From one
perspective, a cylinder is like a prism where the bases are
circles instead of polygons.

Thus we will describe a cylinder more formally as a closed

solid that has two parallel and congruent circular bases
connected by a curved surface.

Earlier, we talked about right prisms and right pyramids.

55
Cylinders, Cones, Spheres
A cylinder is a right cylinder if the line segments joining
two corresponding points on the two bases are
perpendicular to the planes of the bases. If a cylinder is not
a right cylinder, it is called an oblique cylinder.

56
Cylinders, Cones, Spheres
Now think of a pyramid with more and more sides (see the
pyramid at the left in Figure 8.123).

Figure 8.123

At some point, a pyramid with a lot of sides begins to look

more like a cone than like a pyramid. From one
perspective, a cone is like a pyramid with a circle for the
base instead of a polygon.
57
Cylinders, Cones, Spheres
When children are asked to describe a cone, they say
things like “A triangle with a flat bottom,” “A round triangle,”
“A large circle with smaller and smaller circles on top until it
reaches a point,” “A cylinder, triangle, and a circle in one.”

We will describe a cone more formally as a simple, closed

surface whose base is a simple, closed curve and whose
lateral surface slopes up to a vertex that we call the apex,
similar to the apex of a pyramid.

58
Cylinders, Cones, Spheres
If the apex of the cone lies directly above the center of the
base, then we call it a right cone. If a cone is not a right
cone, it is called an oblique cone.

In everyday life, we generally experience only right cones

and right cylinders. Therefore, in this book, we will use the
terms cones and cylinders unless referring to oblique cones
or cylinders.
59
Cylinders, Cones, Spheres
A sphere is conceptually related to a circle. A sphere is the
set of points in space equidistant from a given point, which
is called the center.

Any line segment joining the center of the sphere to a point

on the surface is called a radius.

Any line segment whose endpoints lie on the surface of the

sphere and that contains the center is called a diameter.

60