Chapter 2 - INVESTIGATION FOR

BRIDGES

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Site selection
2.3 Site Investigation
2.4 Span Determination
2.1 Introduction

Objectives of investigation is
• To select a suitable site from possible alternatives at
which a bridge can be built and shall be
• economical, satisfying the demands of
• safety, traffic, the stream, and aesthetics
• Thus, in the first stage of design the engineer identifies
a preferred location for the bridge and decides on the
type, size and capacity of the structure.
2.1 Introduction Contd. . . .

• Such decisions are made on the basis of

field surveys and information concerning:
• The proposed road alignments
• The local terrain and site conditions
• The required design life of the bridge
• The likely traffic volumes
• The resources available for the project
2.1 Introduction Contd. . . .

•The local terrain and site conditions dictate

•The height,
•The length,
•The number of spans, and
•The design of the substructure foundations.

•The required design life and the resources available to

construct the bridge will influence
•the choice of materials and construction methods.
• The traffic predictions enable the engineer
•to determine the necessary width of the bridge.
2.1 Introduction Contd. . . .

 The investigation for a major bridge project

should cover studies on
– technical feasibility and
– economic considerations
 and should result in an investigation report.
 The success of the final design will depend on
the thoroughness of the information furnished by
the Engineer in charge of the investigation.
 2.2 Site selection
2.2.1 Preliminary Survey

• objective is
• To assess & study more than one alternative bridge sites
• As road plans are not prepared with contours at this early stage,
• Use of the topographic maps available in the country is made, where
• Possible bridge sites are first located using the topographic maps
and then,
• catchment areas, possible provisional road alignments,
aggregate quarries (constr-Mater.), and other uses are estimated
• After locating the possible bridge sites on these maps, these sites are
visited to collect certain preliminary data required for through
examination of alternative bridge sites from which the final site is
selected
• [The Ethiopian Mapping Authority (EMA) (available scale include 1:250,000, for he whole
country and 1:50,000 for large areas)]
 2.2 Site selection Contd. . .
2.2.2. Selection of Bridge Site

• River crossings are the most common obstructions in a Road Project

demanding a Bridge
. To design of a bridge for rail or road grade separation crossing are relatively
simple compared to river crossings because the former involve
considerations only of height and span whereas, the later has to also take
hydraulic requirements into account
• Three initial considerations in selection of the site include
• A bridge site must offer appropriate vertical and horizontal alignments
(skew angle above 200 should be avoided due to increased bridge costs).
• The sub-soils must have sufficient strength to ensure the stability of the
structure, and the site selection should if possible be made together with
a Geotechnical Engineer to minimize costs and select the best site.
• the bridge and its associated works should not have an adverse impact
on adjoining land or buildings, or be susceptible to damage to the local
environment.
 2.2 Site selection Cont …
2.2.2 Selection of Bridge Site cont …

 In a river crossings, to identify the type of river to be crossed is important

There are two types of rivers channels namely alluvial and incised.

 Alluvial rivers are winding and they erode their banks and scour their beds;
they have flood plains on either side of the channel and the flow regularly
overtops the channel banks to spread across the flood plain.
 They are continually active, scouring and depositing materials on the banks
and transporting quantities of sediment. The main channels and any of the
minor channels can change position and islands can disappear in the course
of a single major flood.

 Incised river have relatively stable banks and are generally narrower and
deeper than alluvial rivers. Some overtop their banks during high flood, but
the flow returns to the existing channel when the flood subsides.

 2.2 Site selection Cont - Selection of Bridge Site cont …
 Incised
Channel

 Alluvial
Channel
 2.2 Site selection Cont …
2.2.2 Selection of Bridge Site cont …

 Steeply graded tributary streams flowing into a major river commonly exhibit
abrupt changes in channel width and bed gradient where they enter the main
flood plain.
 There is a wide range of sites for bridges in rural areas but the
choice may be limited in urban areas and for pass overs.
 Criteria for selection are:
– is on a straight reach of the river. For meandering rivers
the best crossing site is at the nodal points of the course
– where the flow is steady without serious whirls and cross
currents
– is beyond the disturbing influence of large tributaries
 2.2 Site selection Cont …
2.2.2 Selection of Bridge Site cont …

– has well defined and stable high banks above flood level
– has uniform depth of flow
– has straight approach roads and permits as square crossing
as possible
– has good foundation conditions
– has short span (narrow channel)
– does not require expensive river training work
– does not require excessive underwater construction
 2.2 Site selection Cont …
2.2.2 Selection of Bridge Site cont …

 Bridge crossings over alluvial rivers nearly always require training

works
 The location of the bridge in relation to the alignment of the
approaches may be decided as below.
– Total span <60m - The alignment of the approaches govern
– 60m<Total span < 300m -Both the alignment and good bridge site govern
– Total span>300m - Good bridge site governs
 Site selection for major bridges is a teamwork consisting of
highway engineer, bridge engineer, geologist and hydraulic engineer
 If all the requirements cannot be satisfied there may be some
compromise for the less important sites
 2.3. Site Investigation

 Once the likely site for the bridge is identified, field

information needs to obtained on
– the catchment area and run off
– local terrain
– river conditions and water levels
– navigational (only for river Baro) and other clearance
requirements and
– soil information

 2.3. Site Investigation

 Site visit should be made by the designer before

design commences to confirm:
– High-water marks or profiles and related frequencies
– Selection of roughness coefficients
– Evaluation of apparent flow direction and diversions
– Flow concentration (main stream)
– Observation of land use and related flood hazards, and
– Geomorphic relationships and soil conditions
• .
• .
 2.3. Site Investigation
2.3.1. Catchment Area and Run off Data

 Flow volumes to be considered for the bridge design are

function of the catchment characteristics such as:
– catchment size - possibility of any change
– catchment grade
in the nature of the
catchment due to
– catchment cover afforestation or
– presence of any artificial or deforestation
natural storage such as dams, - maximum recorded
intensity and frequency of
lakes etc. rainfall in the catchment
 2.3. Site Investigation
2.3.2 Drawings

a) Index map - showing the proposed location of the bridge, the

alternative bridge sites investigated and rejected, towns and
villages in the vicinity and the general topographic of the area
b) Contour Survey Plans –showing all topographic features
affecting bridge design and approaches
• Distance to be covered by contour plans
• Catchment area (Sq.Km) Upstream Downstream
• Up to 2.5 2.5 0 10.0 150m
• 2.5 to 10 200 – 400m 150m
• over 10 400 – 500m 250m
2.3. Site Investigation

– c) Site plan – showing the details of the selected site and of

the stream to a distance of 100 to 200m upstream and
downstream of the selected site
 This should show the crossing point and alignment of
approaches
 location and reduced level of benchmark
 location of cross section and longitudinal sections of road and
stream taken within area of the plan
 and location of buildings, rock outcrops and other possible
obstructions to the road alignment.
2.3. Site Investigation
2.3.2 Drawings

d) Cross-section and longitudinal sections of the river – Cross-

sections taken at suitable distances both upstream and
downstream of the bridge should indicate the HFL,
OFL,LWL. L-section show bed levels at suitable intervals
along the centerline of the deep water channel
e) Catchment area map – is prepared by tracing the ridge line of
the water shed on the topographic map of the area
 2.3. Site Investigation
2.3.3. River Survey

• River survey data include

• climatological characteristics,
• land runoff characteristics, and
• stream gauging records,
• high water marks and the sizes and
• past performances of existing structures in the vicinity.
• The exact data required will depend upon the methods utilized to estimate
discharges, and frequencies.
• The collection of flood data is a basic survey task in performing any hydraulic
analysis. The field collection will consist mainly of interviews with local people,
maintenance personnel, and local officials who may have recollection of past
flood events in the area.
 2.3. Site Investigation
2.3.3. River Survey

 If a stream gauging station is on the stream close to the crossing site hydrologic data
obtained, should be analyzed ensuring that stream flows have not changed over the
time of measurement.
 (This may attribute to watershed alterations such as the construction of a large storage facility, diversion of
flow to another watershed, addition of flow from another watershed, or development which has significantly
altered the runoff characteristics of the watershed)
 High-water marks are often the only data of past floods available. This data should
include,
– the date and elevation of the flood event, where, local people could be of great help.
– The cause of the high water mark ,the cause of which may be by unusual debris build up rather than an
inadequate structure, and designing roadway or structure to such an elevation could lead to an
unrealistically uneconomical design.
 High water marks can be identified by
– Small debris, such as grass or twigs caught in tree branches, elephant grass
– mud lines on stones or bridges,
 However that grass, bushes, and tree branches could be bent over during flood flows
and spring up after the flow has passed, which may give a false reading of the high
water elevation
 2.3. Site Investigation
2.3.3. River Survey

• The hydrologic characteristics of the basin or watershed of the stream consisting

of the size and configuration of the watershed, the geometry of the stream
network, storage, volumes of ponds, lakes, reservoirs, and flood plains, and the
general geology and soils of the basin can be found from Maps. However, this is
to be supplemented with field survey.
• Having determined these basin characteristics, runoff times, infiltration values,
storage values, and runoff coefficients can be found and used in calculating
flood flow values using different methods outlined in Equations 2.1 to 2.4, shown
below.
• Rainfall records are available from the Ethiopian Meteorological Services
Agency (Weather Bureau). This data should be used to supplement, update,
and refine the data developed and presented in Drainage Design Manual
prepared by Ethiopia Roads Authority.
• Once the best site is selected, information is needed on the highest known
flood level, the ordinary flood level and the low water level at the proposed site.
The design discharge also needs to be determined.
 2.3. Site Investigation
2.3.3 River Survey

• The normal high water level, Ordinary Flood Level (OFL)– is the level to
which the river normally rises during the wettest season of the year.
• The normal low water level, the Low Water Level (LWL) – is the level
prevailing in the river during dry weather. If there is little or no flow in dry
weather, the period during which the riverbed remains dry should be noted.
• Highest known Flood Level(HFL) – is the highest level that the river is known to
rise to
• The bridge engineer is required to select Design Flood Level (DFL), design
discharge and design velocity on which to base calculations of waterway
geometry, foundation depth, scour protection and vertical clearance.
• The design flood is the maximum flow that can pass through the bridge without
causing
• unacceptable disruption to traffic
• endangering the pier and abutment foundations with scours
• Damaging approach embankments
• Causing flood damage on the upstream side of embankments
 2.3. Site Investigation
2.3.3 River Survey

• On important roads the bridge may be designed for a design flood occurring no
more than once every ten years and a high flood occurring once every hundred
years(Refer drainage manual for recent ERA recommendation

• A minor road may be served by bridges or low water crossings designed to be

overtopped for a few days every year.
•
• In Ethiopia, hydraulic records are not available for most of the rivers and the DFL
is taken as the High Water Mark (HWM) which is obtained from silt marks left on
banks or twigs left adhering to nearby trees supplemented by inquires of people
residing nearby the nriver at the proposed bridge site.
•
• The high flood is the rarely occurring flow that it is uneconomical to include in the
design flood, but which may be considered when stress designing the
superstructure and piers of the bridge.
 2.3. Site Investigation
2.3.3 River Survey

• The maximum discharge may be determined by the following methods

• Empirical Formula
Q=C*An, Q=C*A Ryve’s formula …. (2.1)
•
• Rational Formula
Q=C*1*A . . (2.2)
• Area-Velocity Method
Q=V*A . . (2.3)
• Unit Hydrograph
• From any available records of the flood discharge at the bridge site or at any
other site in the vicinity
• The design discharge may be taken as the maximum value obtained from at
least two of the methods mentioned.
•
 2.3. Site Investigation
2.3.4. Soil Investigation

• Soil investigation is required to get soil profile, engineering property of the

foundation material and determine foundation level for the abutments and piers
This information is obtained by analyzing samples taken from boreholes, test
pits or geophysical surveying.
• In the preliminary survey state, the soil investigation could be very brief, since
the final alignment of the roadway is not decided. The most probable location
should be investigated to get a general view of the soil conditions.
•
• If the conditions are complex or if there is only one possible bridge site, and for
the selected final bridge site, the investigations will be made thoroughly. This
work should be made under the guidance of a geotechnical engineer.
•
• In has proved very practical to make a simple sketch of the bridge site with
approximate water shores, existing structures, scour holes, main stream
location, etc including very rough dimensions with approximate measurements.
 2.3. Site Investigation
2.3.4. Soil Investigation

 As a minimum, photos shall be taken looking upstream, and downstream from

the site as well as along the contemplated highway centerline in both
directions. Details of the streambed and banks should also be photographed
along with any existing structures in the vicinity both upstream and
downstream. Close-up photographs complete with a scale or grid shall be
taken to facilitate estimates of the stream bed gradation
 2.4. Span Determination
2.4.1 Economical Span

• For a given lineal waterway the total cost of the superstructure increase and
the total cost of the substructure decrease with increase in span. The most
economical span length is that for which the cost of superstructure equals the
cost of substructure, the point at which the total cost is a minimum.
 2.4. Span Determination
2.4.2 Hydraulic Requirements

• Bridges are designed to accommodate design discharge at design flood.

When a bridge structure and its associated embankments encroach upon the
flow of the river in flood, there is a risk to the structure, the embankments and
the surrounding land. It is not economical, however, to build a bridge to clear a
wide flood plain. So lineal waterway that passes the design discharge should
be provided (plus free board) and the bridge be stress designed for the high
flood.
•
• When a river has a wide flood plain, the economical solution may be using
short span bridge with proper scour and erosion protection for the
embankments, abutments and piers.
 2.4. Span Determination
2.4.3 Location of Piers

• Piers should be located in such a manner that they can provide the required
lineal waterway and navigational clearance. They should be located to cause a
minimum of obstruction to the flow. Piers should not be located in the river if
there is boulder transport during flood. The most economical spans should be
adopted as far as possible. Piers and abutments should also be located to
make the best use of the foundation conditions available. If navigational or
aesthetic requirements dictate, the spans may be suitably modified.

• The alignment of piers and abutments should, if possible, be set parallel to the
direction of flow during maximum flood even for skewed and curved bridges,
which may not be the same as during normal flow.

• Bridge crossings over alluvial rivers nearly always require training works to
stabilize the flow within the bridge water way opening.
 2.4. Span Determination
2.4.4 Free Board

• The waterway below the superstructure must be designed to pass the design flood
and the floating debris carried on it. This should apply even after several years of
sedimentation. The free board allows for uncertainty in determining DFL also. The
minimum free board
•
• above the design water level is given in table below unless a refined hydraulic have
been made.
•
• Table 2.2 Free Bard
• Discharge(m3/s) Free Board(m)
• 0-3 0.3
• 3-30 0.6
• 30-300 0.9
• >300 1.2

 2.4. Span Determination
2.4.4 Free Board

• These clearance measurements should be increased for backwater effects

when the flow is restricted by short span bridge or when the river has a history
of unusual large floating items or in the case of the Baro River for navigational
requirements. For arched structures the clearance will be measured at quarter
points of the span. The minimum clearance above roadways shall be at least
5.1m. Light superstructures (timber, steel trusses, steel girders, etc) will have a
minimum clearance height of 5.3m above roadways.
•
• Underpasses for pedestrian and bicycles should not be less than 2.4m. For
cattle and wildlife underpasses should be designed as the normal height of the
actual kind of animal plus 0.5m and for horse riding, the clear height should not
be less than 3.4m. Bridges above railways shall have a clearance height of at
least 6.1m if not otherwise stated to facilitate future electrification.
 2.4. Span Determination
2.4.5 Grade Requirements

 Often in mountainous areas the roadway grade is governed by capacity of

heaviest vehicle to climb, vertical curve and sight distance. These grade
requirements may increase the bridge span more that required by hydraulic
design.