SQL -Basics

Database System Concepts

Abraham Silberschatz,Henry F. Korth, S. Sudarshan
&
Oracle database The Complete Reference
Oracle Press

SQL 1
SQL(Structured Query Language)

• SQL-(SEQUEL) was developed by IBM Corporation, Inc.,

based on E. F. Codd's model

• Proposed 12 Rules such as-

• Information rule, Guaranteed Access Rule, Systematic Treatment of NULL Values,
Dynamic Online Catalog Based on the Relational Model, Comprehensive Data
Sublanguage (see notes section for details),… Non-Subversion Rule.

• 1st Commercial SQL- Relational Software, Inc . –Now Oracle

• MS SQL Server, IBM DB2, Oracle, MySQL, and Microsoft Access
SQL 2
SQL Language Elements

•SQL statements also include the semicolon (";") statement

terminator.
SQL 3
 Data Definition Language

The SQL data-definition language (DDL) allows the

specification of information about relations, including:

 The schema for each relation/table.

 The domain of values associated with each attribute.

 Integrity constraints

 And as we will see later, also other information such as

 The set of indices to be maintained for each relations.

 Security and authorization information for each relation.
 The physical storage structure of each relation on disk.

SQL 4
 Domain Types in SQL

 char(n). Fixed length character string, with user-specified length n.

 varchar(n)/varchar2(n). Variable length character strings, with user-specified maximum
length n.
 int. Integer (a finite subset of the integers that is machine-dependent).
 smallint. Small integer (a machine-dependent subset of the integer domain type).
 numeric(p,d)/number(p,d). Fixed point number, with user-specified precision of p digits,
with d digits to the right of decimal point.
 real, double precision. Floating point and double-precision floating point numbers, with
machine-dependent precision.
 float(n). Floating point number, with user-specified precision of at least n digits.

SQL 5
 Built-in Data Types in SQL
 date: Dates, containing a (4 digit) year, month and date
 Example: date ‘2005-7-27’
 time: Time of day, in hours, minutes and seconds.
 Example: time ‘09:00:30’ time ‘09:00:30.75’
 timestamp: date plus time of day
 Example: timestamp ‘2005-7-27 09:00:30.75’
 interval: period of time.
In Oracle this data type is used as below-

Example: CREATE TABLE Emp ( empno NUMBER, ename VARCHAR2(50),

job VARCHAR2(255) , year_of_experience INTERVAL YEAR TO MONTH );

INSERT INTO EMP VALUES (1,'Rajesh','S.Manager', INTERVAL '10-5' YEAR TO MONTH);

SELECT * FROM Emp;

SQL 6
Oracle- SQL Data Types…
1. Character
• Char – fixed length character string that can varies between 1-2000
bytes
• Varchar / Varchar2 – variable length character string, size ranges from
1-4000 bytes.
• Long - variable length character string, maximum size is 2 GB
2. Number : Can store +ve,-ve,zero,fixed point, floating point with 38
precision.
• Number – {p=38,s=0}
• Number(p) - fixed point
• Number(p,s) –floating point

SQL 7
 SQL Data Types
3. Date : used to store date and time in the table. DB uses its own format of storing in
fixed length of 7 bytes for century, date, month, year, hour, minutes, seconds. The default
data type is “dd-mon-yy”

4. Interval Year To Month : Stores a period of time using the YEAR and MONTH date
time fields

5. Raw Datatype: used to store byte oriented data like binary data and byte string. Mainly
used when moving data between different systems. Oracle Recommends to store as BLOB
6. Other :
• CLOB – A character large object containing single-byte or multi byte characters.
• BLOB – stores large binary objects such as graphics, video, sounds..
• BFILE – Contains a locator to a large binary file stored outside the database.
SQL 8
Different Types of Commands

DDL commands: -
To create and modify database objects - CREATE, ALTER, DROP
DML commands: -
To manipulate data of a database objects- INSERT, DELETE, UPDATE
DQL command: -
To retrieve the data from a database - SELECT
DCL commands: -
To control the data of a database – GRANT, REVOKE
TCL commands:-
To control and manage transactions – COMMIT, SAVEPOINT,

SQL 9
 Create Table Construct
 An SQL relation is defined using the create table command:

create table r (A1 D1, A2 D2, ..., An Dn); both are equivalent syntax

CREATE TABLE table-name ( column_name Datatype(size),

column_name Datatype (size), . . . );

 r is the name of the relation/table
 each Ai is an attribute (column) name in the schema of relation r
Di is the data type of values in the domain of attribute Ai
 Example:
create table instructor (
ID char(5),
name varchar(20),
dept_name varchar(20),
salary numeric(8,2));
 insert into instructor values (‘10211’, ’Smith’, ’Biology’, 66000);
 insert into instructor values (‘10211’, null, ’Biology’, 66000);
SQL 10
 INTEGRITY CONSTSRAINTS
 Valid data means –the data which follows certain rules/ regulations of real world system.

 Therefore designer has to ensure that data entered by user has to be checked against

these rules and allowed to store if valid otherwise need to be rejected.

 Integrity constraints guard against accidental damage to the database, by ensuring that

authorized changes to the database do not result in a loss of data consistency .

 Example:
 Data in some Column such as Phone_Number is mandatory for user to enter.
 Data in some Column such as Registration_Number has to be Unique ( No duplicated allowed).
 Data in some Column such as Registration_Number is used to identify every student distinctly.
 Valid range of Data for some Column such as Under_Gradate is BSc, B.Tech. BE.
 A SB account must have a balance greater than 1000/-

SQL 11
 TYPE of CONSTSRINTS
 Rule/Constraints can be imposed on single column or combination of columns.

 Column-level Constraints- Imposed on Single Column. Defined along with

Column
 Table Level Constraint.- Defined at the end after defining all the columns.
 Multi-level Column.

– Primary key imposed on combination of columns- (Name,F.name,Surname)

 Constraint imposed on a column that reference another column in the constraint.

– Assume that are two columns in the table say- Date_of_Birth and Date_of_Join.

– We want to impose condition(constraint) on Date_of_Join that

Date_of_Join > Date_of_Birth.

SQL 12
 Integrity Constraints in Create Table
SQL supports a number of different integrity constraints.

 not null -
 primary key (A1, ..., An )
 foreign key (Am, ..., An ) references r
 Unique
 Check
 Default

SQL 13
 NOT NULL
 NULL is special kind of value applicable to any domain(datatype).

 Note: NULL is not equivalent to '' or ' '

 In some cases, value to some column is mandatory to enter.
 In other words we want to force the user to enter some value to the column.
Example: Assume that the table Instructor considered in previous slide, we want make user to
enter some values, can’t be left null vales.

create table instructor (

ID char(5),
name varchar(20) NOT NULL , dept_name varchar(20),
salary numeric(8,2) );

 insert into instructor values (‘10211’, ’Smith’, ’Biology’, 66000);

 insert into instructor values (‘10211’, null, ’Biology’, 66000); GIVES ERROR
* Insert commands are discussed in detail later.
14
SQL
 PRIMARY KEY
 Identifies every tuple(record/row) in the table uniquely.
 primary key (Aj1, Aj2, . . . , Ajm )
 Where Aj1, Aj2, . . . , Ajm are the set of attributes in the table used to form a primary key.
 Aj1, Aj2, . . . , Ajm are said to be components of primary key.
 Primary key may be imposed on a single attribute or multiple attributes of the table.
 There can be ONLY ONE PRIMARY key for a table.
 Properties:
 NO component of primary key can be NULL.
 Values to the columns must be Unique( Duplicate values can’t be entered to a column)

Example: Declare ID as the primary key for instructor

create table instructor (

ID char(5) PRIMARY KEY,
name varchar(20) not null,
dept_name varchar(20),
salary numeric(8,2));
SQL 15
 PRIMARY KEY-Table Level
 Example: Create a table Enrollment containing fields –SID –student ID , CNo-Course Number and
Year – Joining Year to the Course.
 Condition to be imposed that – We want to identify a student Uniquely who enrolled to a Course on a
Particular year. Therefore combination of SID,CNO and YEAR has to be Unique and can’t be Null.
 Therefore we need to impose Primary Key on SID,CNO and YEAR .
 Since Constraint is on multiple column, it has to be defined as Table level Constraints.
CREATE TABLE Enrollment
(SID char(9) NOT NULL,
CNO varchar2(7) NOT NULL,
Year number(2) NOT NULL,
Grade char(2),
PRIMARY KEY (SID, CNO, Year)); Note: primary key defined after defining all the columns

SQL 16
 FOREIGN KEY
 foreign key (Ak1 , Ak2, . . . , Akn ) in r references s: The foreign key in a relation r (child)
specification says that the values of attributes (Ak1 , Ak2, . . . , Akn ) for any tuple in the relation r
must correspond to values of the primary key attributes of some tuple in relation s (parent).

Enrollment can be done to only to those who are student, therefore SID column in Enrollment can have only
values which are present in SID in Student table.
This condition is imposed by defining SID in Enrollment as Foreign key referencing Students

This is known as Referential

SQL
Integrity Constraint 17
 ..FOREIGN KEY column-level
 Example:
 We have to create Parent Tables First.
 CREATE TABLE Students (SID char (9) PRIMARY KEY , Name varchar2(25)
not null, Age integer);

 CREATE TABLE Courses (CID varchar2 (9) UNIQUE , C_Name varchar2(25)

not null, Credits number(2), Duration Number(2));
 After Creating Parent Table/s, create Child tables
 CREATE TABLE Enrollment
( SID char (9) NOT NULL References Students,
CNo varchar2 (9) References Courses(CID),
Year number (2) not null,
Grade char (2), Primary key (SID, CNO, Year) );

SQL 19
 ..FOREIGN KEY table-level
 Example:

 Parent(Master) Table:
CREATE TABLE Items( Item_name varchar2(10), Comp_name varchar2(10),
Price Number(3),
PRIMARY KEY (Item_name,Comp_name) );
 Child(Detail) Table
CREATE TABLE Transactions( It_name varchar2(10), Comp_name varchar2(10),
Tr_Date date, Qty Number(3),
FOREIGN KEY(It_name,Comp_name) REFERENCES Items);

SQL 20
 ..FOREIGN KEY
 Properties:
 A Foreign key can contain-
 Only values present in the corresponding Parent Column.
 NULL values, provided Foreign key is not defined with additional NOT NULL
constraints.
 Foreign key column can reference to any column (parent column) whose data
type, width is same and Parent column has to be defined with Primary key or
Unique constraint.
 A Parent Column has to exist before creation of Child Column with Foreign
key Constraint.

Restrictions: Any UPDATE/INSERT/DELETE of Records , ALTER or DROP

Operation that Violates any of the above properties is restricted and hence
Rejected by the Database System.
SQL 21
 ..FOREIGN KEY – INSERT Restrictions

 INSERT INTO EMP VALUES(105,’Rajesh’,’D4’); is Rejected

 To execute above INSERT command, execute in following Order
 INSERT INTO DEPT VALUES(‘D4’,’Physics’,125678);
 Note-Parent record with parent column value D4 is added to DEPARTMENT and now we can add child
Employee record with D4(child column value) department
 INSERT INTO EMP VALUES(105,’Rajesh’,’D4’); Now it is Accepted.

SQL 23
 ..FOREIGN KEY- UPDATE/DELETE Restrictions

 Similarly,
 UPDATE EMP SET DEPTNO=‘D5’ WHERE EMPNO=100; is Rejected.
 UPDATE EMP SET DEPTNO=‘D3’ WHERE EMPNO=100; is Accepted.
 DELETE FROM DEPARTMENT WHERE DNO=‘D1’ is Rejected
 To execute above DELETE command, execute in following Order
 1st Delete from Child Table(EMP) and then 2nd Delete from Parent(DEPARTMENT)
 This Deletion process can be automated by using Clause ON DELETE CASCADE / ON DELETE
SET NULL while creating Child Table
 Similarly Altering Structure of DNO or Dropping DNO is Rejected.

SQL 24
 ..FOREIGN KEY- ON DELETE CASCADE/ON DELETE SET NULL
 A foreign key with cascade delete means that if a record in the parent table is deleted, then the
corresponding records in the child table will automatically be deleted. This is called a cascade
delete in Oracle.
 Example: Create tables give in slide 18 with ON DELETE CASCADE clause along with
FOREIGN KEY.
 Parent(Master) Table:
 CREATE TABLE Department ( Dno varchar(2) PRIMARY KEY, Name varchar(10),Budget
Number(9) );
 Child(Detail) Table

 CREATE TABLE Emp(Empno number(3) PRIMARY KEY, Name varchar(10),

Deptno varchar(2) REFERENCES Department ON DELETE CASCADE);

Any Delete operation on the table Department(Parent) first deletes dependent

records in the EMP(child) table automatically. Thus Delete operation restriction
SQL 25
on Foreign key constraint is get resolved automatically.
 ..FOREIGN KEY- ON DELETE CASCADE/ON DELETE SET NULL
 A foreign key with “ON DELETE SET NULL " means that if a record in the parent table is deleted, then
the corresponding records in the child table will have the foreign key fields set to null. The records in
the child table will not be deleted.
 Example: Create tables give in slide 18 with ON DELETE SET NULL clause along with FOREIGN KEY.
 Parent(Master) Table:
 CREATE TABLE Department(Dno varchar(2) PRIMARY KEY, Name varchar(10),Budget
Number(9));
 Child(Detail) Table

 CREATE TABLE Emp( Empno number(3) PRIMARY KEY, Name varchar(10), Deptno
varchar(2) REFERENCES Department ON DELETE SET NULL );

SQL 26
..FOREIGN KEY- ON DELETE CASCADE/ON DELETE SET NULL

When a record is deleted from Department(Parent) table it will not delete

dependent records in the EMP(child) table instead puts NULL values to
corresponding foreign key column/s. Thus removes dependency of
corresponding records in the child table on table records being deleted in
the Parent table.

Thus Delete operation restriction on Foreign key is get resolved

automatically.

SQL 27
..FOREIGN KEY - Recursive Relationship

Example:
CREATE TABLE EMP(Empno number(3) PRIMARY KEY,
Ename Varchar2(10), MGRNO number(3));

Note: Referential Integrity constraint on MGR_NO can be

defined using Alter Table command after creating EMP
table
OR
CREATE TABLE EMP(Empno number(3) PRIMARY KEY,
Ename Varchar2(10), MGRNO number(3)
SQL 28
REFERENCES EMP);
 UNIQUE
 unique ( A , A , …, A )
1 2 m
 The unique specification states that the attributes A1, A2, … Am
form a candidate key.
 Candidate keys are permitted to be null (in contrast to primary keys).
 Example:
CREATE TABLE Student(
ID varchar(5) PRIMARY KEY,
Name Varchar(10),
Phone number(10) UNIQUE,
tot_credit Number(2) );

Phone is implemented with Column level UNIQUE Constraints.

SQL 29
 ..UNIQUE
 In the following table combination of Area_code & Phone_Num is Unique

for a landline phone.

 Area_code & Phone_Num is to be implemented as Table-level Constraint,
 Example:
CREATE TABLE BsnL_Customer (
Customer_ID number(7) PRIMARY KEY,
Name varchar(10) NOT NULL,
Address varchar(20),
Area_Code Number(4),
Phone_Num Number(6),
UNIQUE(Area_Code , Phone_Num ) );

SQL 30
 Some Exercises
• Create the following tables with constraints.
EMP FACULTY
Attribute Datatype size Constraint
Attribute Datatype size Constraint
RegNo Number 3 Primary key Faculty_ID Number 3 Primary Key
Name Varchar 10 Name Varchar 10
References DEPT
Faculty_Advisor F.key referring Faculty with set null
constraint on
Dno Deletion
DEPT
Datatyp
Attribute e size Constraint
DeptID Char 3 Unique
Dname Varchar 10 Unique
HOD Varchar 10

SQL 31
 The CHECK clause – Using IN
 check (P)
where P is a predicate(condition)

Example: ensure that Type of Courses offered by a Department is any one of MCA,
MTech, BTec,MS.

CREATE TABLE Department (

Department_name varchar (8) PRIMARY KEY,
Course_Type varchar (8) CHECK( Course_Type IN( 'MCA ',' MTech ',' BTech', 'MS')),
Numb_of_Semester Number(1),
In_take_stud_num Number(2),
Department_Phone Number(10) NOT NULL UNIQUE );
Note: IN works like a Belongs to a set Operator
User_enetred_value ϵ { 'MCA ',' MTech ',' BTech', 'MS' }
SQL 32
 ..The CHECK clause –Using BETWEEN
 Create table Instructor and ensure that Salary column accepts only values in the range 50000
to 200000 ( both upper and lower bound values are valid).

 CREATE TABLE instructor (

ID char(5),
name varchar(20),
dept_name varchar(20),
salary numeric(8,2) CHECK( Salary>=50000 AND Salary<=200000)
);
 CREATE TABLE instructor (
ID char(5),
name varchar(20),
dept_name varchar(20),
salary numeric(8,2) CHECK( Salary BETWEEN 50000 AND 200000)
);
SQL 33
 ..The check clause - using LIKE %

% symbol is a wildcard character which ignores zero or any number of

characters.
Example:
 Create a table CANDIDATES(CandtID, Name, Branch) appearing for entrance exam at MIT.
Candidate numbers must be Unique & every candidate number must start with MIT.

 CREATE TABLE CANDIDATE( CandtId varchar2(7) PRIMARY KEY CHECK (CandtId

LIKE 'MIT%'), Name varchar(10),Branch varchar(10));

 INSERT INTO CANDIDATE VALUES('MIT1020', 'Raghu', 'CompSc’); accepted

 INSERT INTO CANDIDATE VALUES('MIT', 'Raghu', 'CompSc’); accepted
 INSERT INTO CANDIDATE VALUES(‘ABC1021', ‘Raj', 'CompSc’); rejected
SQL 34
 ..The check clause - using LIKE _
_ is a wildcard character which ignores 1 character(accepts exactly one any
character).
Example:
 Create a table PRODUCT(ProdID, Name, Price) to store products of JOI company. Product numbers must
be of the form JOI- followed by any 5 characters(use 5 under score character).

 CREATE TABLE PRODUCT(ProdID varchar2(9) PRIMARY KEY CHECK (ProdID LIKE 'JOI-

_____'), Name varchar(10),Price Number(5));

 INSERT INTO PRODUCT VALUES('JOI-22232’, ’Mobile’,3344);; accepted.

 INSERT INTO PRODUCT VALUES('JOI-’,’S.WATCH’,2344); rejected
 INSERT INTO PRODUCT VALUES('JOI-222’,’Tab’,7344); rejected
 INSERT INTO PRODUCT VALUES('JOI-222456’,’ROUTER’,9344); rejected
SQL 35
 ..The check clause - using function UPPER()

Example:
 Create a table CANDIDATES(CandtID, Name, Branch) appearing for entrance exam at MIT.
Candidate numbers must be Unique & every candidate number must start with MIT.
User must enter Branch in Capital letters only.

 CREATE TABLE CANDIDATE( CandtId varchar2(7) PRIMARY KEY CHECK

(CandtId LIKE 'MIT%'), Name varchar(10),Branch varchar(10)

CHECK(Branch=UPPER(Branch)));

 INSERT INTO CANDIDATE VALUES('MIT1021', 'Raghu', 'COMP.SC’); accepted

 If user enters Branch as –’Comp.Sc’ , it is rejected with constraint error message.
 INSERT INTO CANDIDATE VALUES('MIT1021', 'Raj', 'Comp Sc'); rejected

SQL 36
 DEFAULT
The DEFAULT constraint is used to provide a default value for a column.
Example:
CREATE TABLE Persons (
ID Number(3) NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(10) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(10),
Age Number(2),
City varchar(15) DEFAULT 'Manipal' );

INSERT INTO Persons(ID, Lastname) values(100,'AAA');

Inserts value to ID=100 , Lastname=AAA , FirstName= NULL , Age=NULL & City takes
value Manipal automatically even though City value is not specified in the INSERT
command.
SQL 37
 Example
Tables created without constraint Name:
CREATE TABLE Organization(Dept_name varchar (8) PRIMARY KEY, Head
varchar(10));
CREATE TABLE Department (Dname varchar (8) PRIMARY KEY REFERENCES
Organization, Course_Type varchar (8) CHECK( Course_Type
IN( 'MCA','MTech' ,'BTech','MS')), Numb_of_Sem Number(1) CHECK
(Numb_of_Sem BETWEEN 1 AND 8), In_take_stud Number(2), Dep_Phone
Number(10) NOT NULL UNIQUE );

SQL 38
 ..Example
Note the constraint name and error numbers displayed when data being inserted violates constraint

INSERT INTO organization VALUES('DCSA’,’KAK');

INSERT INTO Department VALUES(‘DCSA','mca',4,66,78899);

ORA-02290: check constraint (DSE123.SYS_C0010498) violated

INSERT INTO Department VALUES(‘DCSA','MCA',9,66,78899);

ORA-02290: check constraint (DSE123.SYS_C0010499) violated

SQL 39
 Naming the Constraints
• If user do not specifies Constraint Name while defining Constraints, System itself gives a
name. System uses auto generate method to give unique constraints names such as –
SYS_C0003461 etc. As constraint names have to be unique. In case of constraint
violation, it is easy to user to track the constraint if user defined constraint name is given.

• Use CONSTRAINT name_of_constraint along with constraint definition in

CRETAE or ALTER table.

Example:
CREATE TABLE table_name(
column_name1 datatype(size) CONSTRAINT name_of_constraint constraint definition ,
column_name2 datatype(size) …., …..);
*constraint definition – maybe Primary key, Foreign key, Check, Unique, Not Null etc.
SQL 40
 Example
• CREATE TABLE Organization(Dept_name varchar (8) CONSTRAINT Dept_PK
PRIMARY KEY, Head varchar(10));

• CREATE TABLE Department (Dname varchar (8) CONSTRAINT Dname_PK PRIMARY

KEY CONSTRAINT fk_Orga REFERENCES Organization, Course_Type varchar (8)
CONSTRAINT Course_Chk_Type CHECK( Course_Type IN( 'MCA','MTech ', 'BTech',
'MS')), Numb_of_Sem Number(1) CONSTRAINT Sem_Num CHECK(Numb_of_Sem
BETWEEN 1 AND 8), In_take_stud Number(2), Dep_Phone Number(10)
CONSTRAINT NoNul NOT NULL CONSTRAINT Unq_Ph UNIQUE);

SQL 41
 ..Example
Note the constraint name displayed when data being inserted violates constraint

INSERT INTO organization VALUES(‘DCSA’,’KAK');

INSERT INTO Department VALUES(‘DCSA','mca',4,66,78899);

ORA-02290: check constraint (MCA2020.COURSE_CHK_TYPE) violated

INSERT INTO Department VALUES(‘DCSA','MCA',9,66,78899);

ORA-02290: check constraint (MCA2020.SEM_NUM) violated

SQL 42
Example
Create following tables with constraint names.
CUSTOMER
Attribute Datatype size Constraint Constraint Name
CustNo Number 3 Primary key Pkey_Cust_Number
Unique , Can't UNQ_Phone;
Phone number 10 be Null Ph_NoNULL
email varchar 20 Unique
City varchar 20 BNG/MUB/CHN Valid_City
Date_Birth Date
ACCOUNT

Attribute Datatype size Constraint Constraint Name

Accno Number 3 Priamry key
Pkey_AccNo
CustNo Primary key; Foreign Key
Balance Number 7 >1000 Min_Balance
SQL 43
 Drop Table Constructs

The DROP TABLE statement allows you to remove or delete a table from the database.

Syntax:

DROP TABLE tablename;

Example: DROP TABLE Emp;

SQL 44
 Alter Table Constructs
The ALTER TABLE statement is used to add, modify, or drop/delete columns/constraints in
a table.
The SQL ALTER TABLE statement is also used to rename a table.

Adding Column
Syntax:

ALTER TABLE table_name ADD (column_name1 column-

definition, column_name2 column-definition,…..) ;

Example: Add column Salary and Phone to Emp table.

ALTER TABLE Emp ADD (Salary Number(7), Phone Number(10));

SQL 45
 ..Alter Table Constructs

Modifying Column
Syntax:

ALTER TABLE table_name

MODIFY (column_1 column_type, column_2 column_type, ...
column_n
column_type);

Example: Modify column Name to size 25 and Salary to 9,2 in the Emp table.

ALTER TABLE Emp MODIFY ( Name VARCHAR(25) NOT NULL, Salary

Number(9,2));

SQL 46
 ..Alter Table Constructs

DROP a Column
Syntax:

ALTER TABLE table_name

DROP COLUMN column_name;

Example: Drop column Name from Emp table.

ALTER TABLE Emp DROP COLUMN Name;

SQL 47
 ..Alter Table Constructs

RENAME a Table
Syntax:

ALTER TABLE table_name RENAME TO New_table_name;

Example: Add column Salary to Emp table.

ALTER TABLE Emp RENAME TO Employee;

SQL 48
 ..Alter Table Constructs
Adding CHECK Constraint to a column
Syntax:
ALTER TABLE table_name
ADD CONSTRAINT constraint_name CHECK( p ) );
Where p - predicate

Example: Add constraint to Students table to check Mark2 column takes values
only in the range 0 to 100.

ALTER TABLE Student

ADD CONSTRAINT check_mark_range
CHECK (mark2>=0 AND mark2<=100);

SQL 49
 ..Alter Table Constructs

Adding UNIQUE Constraint to a column

Syntax:
ALTER TABLE table_name
ADD CONSTRAINT constraint_name UNIQUE( column1,column2,..columnn ) );

Example: Add constraint to Students table make Phone column as Unique.

ALTER TABLE Student

ADD CONSTRAINT uniq_phone
UNIQUE(Phone);

SQL 50
 ..Alter Table Constructs
Adding PRIMARY KEY Constraint to a column
Syntax:
ALTER TABLE table_name
ADD CONSTRAINT constraint_name
PRIMARY KEY (column1, column2, ... column_n) ;

Example: Assume that Person(Fname, Lname, Address) table is already created. Add
constraint to Person table to make (FName,LName) column as Primary Key.
ALTER TABLE Person ADD CONSTRAINT F_L_Name_PK
PRIMARY KEY (FName,LName);

SQL 51
 ..Alter Table Constructs
Adding FOREIGN KEY Constraint to a column
Syntax:
ALTER TABLE table_name
ADD CONSTRAINT constraint_name
FOREIGN KEY (column1, column2, ... column_n)
REFERENCES parent_table (column1, column2, ... column_n);
Example: Assume that Person(Fname, Lname, Address) table is already created with (Fname, LName) as
Primary Key. Also a table Customer(Cust_Id, Cust_FName,Cust_Lname,Credits) is also created already.
Now we want to make (Cust_FName,Cust_Lname) as foreign key referencing Person

ALTER TABLE Customer ADD CONSTRAINT Cust_FLName_FK

FOREIGN KEY(Cust_FName, Cust_Lname) REFERENCES Person;

SQL 52
 ..Alter Table Constructs
Removing Constraints
Syntax:
ALTER TABLE table_name
DROP CONSTRAINT constraint_name ;

Example: Assume that Person(Fname, Lname, Address) table is already created with
(Fname,LName) as Primary Key. Also assume a table Customer(Cust_Id,
Cust_FName,Cust_Lname,Credits) is also created already with foreign key constraint on
(Cust_FName,Cust_Lname) referencing (Fname,LName).

• Now we want to remove foreign key constraint from

(Cust_FName,Cust_Lname).

ALTER TABLE Customer DROP CONSTRAINT Cust_FLName_FK;

SQL 53
 INSERT
Inserts a new record at the end of given table.
Syntax-
INSERT INTO table_name VALUES (value1,value2,….)

Example: Insert a record to a table Course(Course_id,title,Dept_Name,Credits)

insert into course

values (’CS-437’, ’Database Systems’, ’Comp. Sci.’, 4);
There will be 1 to 1 mapping between values given and order in which columns are created in
relation Course.
1st value ‘CS-437’ is mapped to column Course_id,
2nd value ‘Database Systems’ is mapped to column title and so on.
SQL 57
 ..INSERT
Inserting values to fewer columns
Syntax-
INSERT INTO table_name(column1,column2,..) VALUES (value1,value2,….)

Example: Insert a record into Course table having values to Course_id, Dept_Name columns
only. Course(Course_id,title,Dept_Name,Credits)

insert into course (course_id,dept_name) values (’CS-438’, ’Comp. Sci.’);

It is equivalent to –

insert into course values (’CS-438’, NULL, ’Comp. Sci.’, NULL);

Note: NULL is not same as ‘NULL’ , nor ‘ ’

SQL 58
 ..INSERT (date value)

Example: Assume we have a table STUD (Rno, Name, Birth_Date)

Insert a record into STUD table.
INSERT INTO Stud VALUES(19011102, ‘Ajay’, TO_DATE(‘21-09-2001’,’DD-MM-YYYY’));
TO_DATE () is a oracle inbuilt function, which converts given date value (in the form
character value) into date type.
More details about formats we will discuss latter.
Date has a default format set.
Default format is : DD-MON-YY , then you can enter data as below without TO_DATE()
Example:
INSERT INTO Stud VALUES(19011103, ‘Aman’, ‘21-OCT-2001’);

SQL 59
 Insert into… Select .. From…
• Some time instead of giving data for every tuple in the INSERT INTO command,
we can insert tuples on the basis of the result of a query.
• Using SELECT statement as sub query in the INSERT INTO, we can select
(copy) some set of records from a relation(source) and insert into another
relation(Destination).
• Note that we need to take care of datatype and size compatibility.
STUD Rollno Name Course Dept
MARKS Rno Course Marks Attendance
101 Ajit Algorithms CS

102 Ravi IoT IT

103 Anish Algorithms MCA

101 Ram ML MCA

Example: Insert Rollno and course information of students enrolled to MCA department into
MARKS relation.

INSERT INTO MARKS(RNo, Course) SELECT Rollno, Course FROM STUD WHERE Dept=‘MCA’;
SQL 60
 ..INSERT
Inserting multiple records
Syntax-
INSERT INTO table1(column1,column2,..) SELECT column1,column2,.. FROM table2;
 Example: Consider the tables Student(Id, Name, D_name, tot_cred) and Instructor(Id, Name,
Dept_name, Salary). Add all instructors to the student relation with tot_creds set to 0
insert into student
select ID, name, dept_name, 0
from instructor;
OR

insert into student(ID,name,D_name)

select ID, name, dept_name
from instructor;
The select from where statement is evaluated fully before any of its results are inserted into the relation
SQL 61
 UPDATE

To modify any column/s value in a already existing record.

Syntax:
UPDATE table_name SET column1=value1,column2=value2,…
WHERE condition involving any of column/s in the table ;

Example: Consider the table Instructor(Id, Name, Dept_name, Salary).

Increase the salary of instructor with ID I201 by 10%.

UPDATE Instructor SET Salary=Salary+Salary*0.1 WHERE Id=‘I201’;

SQL 62
 ..UPDATE
• Example: Consider the table Instructor(Id, Name, Dept_name, Salary). Increase
salaries of instructors whose salary is over $100,000 by 3%, and all others receive a
5% raise
• Write two update statements:
UPDATE instructor
SET salary = salary * 1.03
WHERE salary > 100000;

UPDATE instructor
SET salary = salary * 1.05
WHERE salary <= 100000;
• The order is important
SQL 63
 ..UPDATE –using CASE
• Same query(previous slide) as before but with case statement
UPDATE instructor
SET salary = CASE
WHEN salary <= 100000 THEN salary * 1.05
ELSE salary * 1.03
END;
Assume the table Emp(Empno, ename, deptno,sal)
UPDATE emp SET sal=CASE
WHEN sal<=3000 THEN sal*1.1
WHEN sal<=5000 THEN sal*1.05
ELSE sal*1
END; SQL 64
 DELETE

Syntax:
DELETE FROM table_name WHERE condition;
Example:
• Delete all instructors
delete from instructor

• Delete all instructors from the Finance department

delete from instructor
where dept_name= ’Finance’;

SQL 65
 ..DELETE
Syntax:
DELETE FROM table_name WHERE condition;
Note- Condition is involving some sub-query
Example:
• Delete all tuples in the instructor relation for those instructors associated
with a department located in the ‘Watson’ building.
Delete from instructor
where dept_name in (select dept_name
from department
where building = ’Watson’);
SQL 66
END

SQL 67
CREATE VIEW emp_view(ENO,NAME,DATE_OF_BIRTH) AS SELECT empno, ename,
dob FROM emp;

SQL 68
Sample Tables

SQL 69