Ecology

Course Name: Agronomy and Ecology

Course Code: ASM 1102
Course Level: Year One, Semester One
 Agroecology

• Agroecology is an interdisciplinary combination of agronomy, agriculture,

scientific ecology, economics, and social sciences. It integrates practices such
as organic farming, regenerative agriculture, and some aspects of permaculture
and therefore contributes to sustainable development.
• Agroecology is characterized by a global conception of agro-food production
systems and it relies on the natural features of ecosystems to amplify them. This
helps minimize the pressures on the environment and preserve the renewal
capacity of the ecosystem services.
 Agroecology: The principle and their
Implementation

• As a systemic approach, agroecology relies on the improvement of

agro-food processes as a whole, with the constant goal of improving
environmental performance. The implementation of these basic
principles is expressed in two ways:
 Agroecology: At the Farm Level
• Using infrastructures and cutting plots that make the proliferation of
natural auxiliaries and their connection with the exploited surfaces
(hedges, groves, embankments …) easier and limiting of phytosanitary
inputs
• Reintroduction of the biodiversity of cultivated species as a way of
improving production and environmental quality
Agroecology: At the Territorial Level
• Establishment of ecological corridors to increase and facilitate
communication between habitats of auxiliary species, including
pollinators
• Maintenance or redevelopment of wetlands favorable to biodiversity
and water purification
• Consistent cultural practices planned considering different variables
such as the type of crops, the diversity of crop varieties, crop
rotations and agroforestry.
 Why Agro-Ecology
• Agroecology has gradually been shaped in reaction to intensive and
industrial agriculture. Indeed, modern agriculture, developed throughout
the 20th century, has allowed to massively develop food production, but
often at a high ecological cost.
• Today, the scientific community agrees that some ecological problems are
partly due to intensive agriculture. For example, the massive use of
pesticides and degradation of soil quality, loss of biodiversity,
homogenization of soil crops, and the effects of global warming are all
partly due to intensive agriculture.
• More and more researchers, activists, and agronomists are advocating for
a redefinition of the agricultural principles of our society in order to
produce a more responsible and resilient farming system. Agroecology
tries to meet this need because it aims to produce a more sustainable and
ecological farming system.
 Ecosystem Definition

• “An ecosystem is defined as a community of lifeforms in concurrence

with non-living components, interacting with each other.”

• An ecosystem is a structural and functional unit of ecology where the

living organisms interact with each other and the surrounding
environment. In other words, an ecosystem is a chain of interactions
between organisms and their environment. The term “Ecosystem”
was first coined by A.G.Tansley, an English botanist, in 1935.
 Structure of the ecosystem

1. Biotic
Components
2. Abiotic
Components
 Biotic Components

• Biotic components refer to all living components in an ecosystem.

Based on nutrition, biotic components can be categorized into
autotrophs, heterotrophs and saprotrophs (or decomposers).
• Producers include all autotrophs such as plants. They are called
autotrophs as they can produce food through the process of
photosynthesis. Consequently, all other organisms higher up on the
food chain rely on producers for food.
• Consumers or heterotrophs are organisms that depend on other
organisms for food.
• Consumers are further classified into primary consumers, secondary
consumers and tertiary consumers.
 Biotic Components

• Primary consumers are always herbivores as they rely on producers for food.
• Secondary consumers depend on primary consumers for energy. They can either be
carnivores or omnivores.
• Tertiary consumers are organisms that depend on secondary consumers for food.
Tertiary consumers can also be carnivores or omnivores.

• Quaternary consumers are present in some food chains. These organisms prey on
tertiary consumers for energy. Furthermore, they are usually at the top of a food
chain as they have no natural predators.
• Decomposers include saprophytes such as fungi and bacteria. They directly
thrive on the dead and decaying organic matter. Decomposers are
essential for the ecosystem as they help in recycling nutrients to be reused
by plants.
 Abiotic components

• Abiotic components are the non-living components of an ecosystem.

It includes air, water, soil, minerals, sunlight, temperature, nutrients,
wind, altitude, turbidity, etc.
 Functions of Ecosystem

• The functions of the ecosystem are as follows:

• It regulates the essential ecological processes, supports life systems and
renders stability.
• It is also responsible for the cycling of nutrients between biotic and abiotic
components.
• It maintains a balance among the various trophic levels in the ecosystem.
• It cycles the minerals through the biosphere.
• The abiotic components help in the synthesis of organic components that
involve the exchange of energy.
 Functional units of an ecosystem
• Productivity – It refers to the rate of biomass production.
• Energy flow – It is the sequential process through which energy flows
from one trophic level to another. The energy captured from the sun
flows from producers to consumers and then to decomposers and
finally back to the environment.
• Decomposition – It is the process of breakdown of dead organic
material. The top-soil is the major site for decomposition.
• Nutrient cycling – In an ecosystem nutrients are consumed and
recycled back in various forms for the utilisation by various organisms.
 Types of Ecosystem

• An ecosystem can be as small as an oasis in a desert, or as big as an

ocean, spanning thousands of miles. There are two types of
ecosystem:
• Terrestrial Ecosystem
• Aquatic Ecosystem
 Terrestrial Ecosystem

• Terrestrial ecosystems are exclusively land-based ecosystems. There

are different types of terrestrial ecosystems distributed around
various geological zones. They are as follows:
• Forest Ecosystem
• Grassland Ecosystem
• Tundra Ecosystem
• Desert Ecosystem
 Terrestrial Ecosystem
• Forest Ecosystem
• A forest ecosystem consists of several plants, particularly trees, animals and
microorganisms that live in coordination with the abiotic factors of the environment.
Forests help in maintaining the temperature of the earth and are the major carbon sink.
• Grassland Ecosystem
• In a grassland ecosystem, the vegetation is dominated by grasses and herbs. Temperate
grasslands and tropical or savanna grasslands are examples of grassland ecosystems.
• Tundra Ecosystem
• Tundra ecosystems are devoid of trees and are found in cold climates or where rainfall is
scarce. These are covered with snow for most of the year. Tundra type of ecosystem is
found in the Arctic or mountain tops.
• Desert Ecosystem
• Deserts are found throughout the world. These are regions with little rainfall and scarce
vegetation. The days are hot, and the nights are cold.
 Aquatic Ecosystem

• Aquatic ecosystems are ecosystems present in a body of water. These can be

further divided into two types, namely:
• Freshwater Ecosystem
• Marine Ecosystem
• Freshwater Ecosystem
• The freshwater ecosystem is an aquatic ecosystem that includes lakes, ponds,
rivers, streams and wetlands. These have no salt content in contrast with the
marine ecosystem.
• Marine Ecosystem
• The marine ecosystem includes seas and oceans. These have a more substantial
salt content and greater biodiversity in comparison to the freshwater ecosystem.
 Key points:

• Producers, or autotrophs, make their own organic molecules. Consumers,

or heterotrophs, get organic molecules by eating other organisms.
• A food chain is a linear sequence of organisms through which nutrients
and energy pass as one organism eats another.
• In a food chain, each organism occupies a different trophic level, defined
by how many energy transfers separate it from the basic input of the chain.
• Food webs consist of many interconnected food chains and are more
realistic representation of consumption relationships in ecosystems.
• Energy transfer between trophic levels is inefficient—with a typical
efficiency around 10%. This inefficiency limits the length of food chains.
 Autotrophs
• Autotrophs are organisms that can produce their own food, using
materials from inorganic sources. The word “autotroph” comes from
the root words “auto” for “self” and “troph” for “food.” An autotroph
is an organism that feeds itself, without the assistance of any other
organisms.
• Photoautotrophs, such as plants, use energy from sunlight to make
organic compounds—sugars—out of carbon dioxide in photosynthesis
. Other examples of photoautotrophs include algae and cyanobacteria.
• Chemoautotrophs use energy from chemicals to build organic
compounds out of carbon dioxide or similar molecules. This is called
chemosynthesis. For instance, there are hydrogen sulfide-oxidizing
chemoautotrophic bacteria found in undersea vent communities
where no light can reach.
Overview of the cycle between autotrophs and
heterotrophs
 Important Ecological Concepts
• 1. Food Chain
• The sun is the ultimate source of energy on earth. It provides the energy
required for all plant life. The plants utilize this energy for the process of
photosynthesis, which is used to synthesize their food.
• During this biological process, light energy is converted into chemical
energy and is passed on through successive trophic levels. The flow of
energy from a producer, to a consumer and eventually, to an apex
predator or a detritivore is called the food chain.
• Dead and decaying matter, along with organic debris, is broken down
into its constituents by scavengers. The reducers then absorb these
constituents. After gaining the energy, the reducers liberate molecules
to the environment, which can be utilized again by the producers.
Food chain
Trophic levels
 Important Ecological Concepts
• 2. Ecological Pyramids
• An ecological pyramid is the graphical representation of the number, energy, and
biomass of the successive trophic levels of an ecosystem. Charles Elton was the
first ecologist to describe the ecological pyramid and its principals in 1927.
• The biomass, number, and energy of organisms ranging from the producer level to
the consumer level are represented in the form of a pyramid; hence, it is known as
the ecological pyramid.
• The base of the ecological pyramid comprises the producers, followed by primary
and secondary consumers. The tertiary consumers hold the apex. In some food
chains, the quaternary consumers are at the very apex of the food chain.
• The producers generally outnumber the primary consumers and similarly, the
primary consumers outnumber the secondary consumers. And lastly, apex
predators also follow the same trend as the other consumers; wherein, their
numbers are considerably lower than the secondary consumers.
 Important Ecological Concepts
• 3. Food Web
• Food web is a network of
interconnected food chains.
It comprises all the food
chains within a single
ecosystem. It helps in
understanding that plants
lay the foundation of all the
food chains. In a marine
environment,
phytoplankton forms the
primary producer.
 Productivity in an Ecosystem

• Productivity refers to the rate of formation of biomass in the

ecosystem. It can also be referred to as the energy accumulated in the
plants by photosynthesis. There are two types of productivity, namely:
• Primary Productivity
• Secondary Productivity
 Productivity in an Ecosystem
• Primary Productivity
• Primary Productivity refers to the generation of biomass from autotrophic organisms
such as plants. Photosynthesis is the primary tool for the creation of organic material
from inorganic compounds such as carbon dioxide and water. Primary productivity can
be divided into two aspects:
• Gross primary productivity
• Net primary productivity
• Gross primary productivity
• The solar energy trapped by the photosynthetic organism is called gross primary
productivity. All the organic matters produced falls under gross primary productivity.
This depends upon the photosynthetic activity and environmental factors.
• Net primary productivity
• This is estimated by the gross productivity minus energy lost in respiration.
• NPP = GPP – Energy lost by respiration
 Productivity in an Ecosystem
• Secondary Productivity
• Heterotrophs such as animals influence Secondary Productivity. It is
the accumulation of energy at the consumer’s level. It keeps moving
from one organism to another, unlike primary productivity. This
process occurs as a result of organic materials being transferred
between various trophic levels. It is also referred to as the rate of
increase in the biomass of heterotrophs. Organisms such as animals,
fungi, bacteria and numerous protists influence Secondary
Production.
• Unit of Productivity
• Typically, productivity is expressed in units of mass per unit volume
(or surface) per unit time.
 Productivity in an Ecosystem
• Key Points
• A biomass is the total mass of living and previously-living organisms
within a trophic level; ecosystems have characteristic amounts of
biomass at each trophic level.
• The productivity of the primary producers ( gross primary productivity
) is important to ecosystems because these organisms bring energy to
other living organisms.
• Net primary productivity (energy that remains in the primary
producers after accounting for respiration and heat loss) is available
to the primary consumers at the next trophic level.
 Productivity in an Ecosystem
• Key Terms
• biomass: the total mass of all living things within a specific area,
habitat, etc.
• gross primary productivity: rate at which photosynthetic primary
producers incorporate energy from the sun
• net primary productivity: energy that remains in the primary
producers after accounting for the organisms’ respiration and heat
loss
• trophic level: a particular position occupied by a group of organisms
in a food chain (primary producer, primary consumer, secondary
consumer, or tertiary consumer)
 Productivity within trophic levels

• Productivity within an ecosystem can be defined as the percentage of energy entering the
ecosystem incorporated into biomass in a particular trophic level. Biomass is the total mass in a
unit area (at the time of measurement) of living or previously-living organisms within a trophic
level.
• Ecosystems have characteristic amounts of biomass at each trophic level. For example, in the
English Channel ecosystem, the primary producers account for a biomass of 4 g/m 2 (grams per
meter squared), while the primary consumers exhibit a biomass of 21 g/m2.
• The productivity of the primary producers is especially important in any ecosystem because
these organisms bring energy to other living organisms by photoautotrophy or
chemoautotrophy.
• Photoautotrophy is the process by which an organism (such as a green plant) synthesizes its
own food from inorganic material using light as a source of energy; chemoautotrophy, on the
other hand, is the process by which simple organisms (such as bacteria or archaea) derive
energy from chemical processes rather than photosynthesis. The rate at which photosynthetic
primary producers incorporate energy from the sun is called gross primary productivity. An
example of gross primary productivity is the compartment diagram of energy flow within the
Silver Springs aquatic ecosystem. In this ecosystem, the total energy accumulated by the
primary producers was shown to be 20,810 kcal/m2/yr.
 Ecological succession
• Ecological Succession is defined as “a series of changes in an
ecological system across time.” It can be defined simply as the
sequence of species colonisation of an ecosystem from a barren or
infertile piece of land.
• Types:
1. Primary succession
2. Secondary succession
• In Primary Succession, living creatures inhabit newly exposed or
newly created rock for the first time.
• Secondary Succession occurs when a previously inhabited area is
disturbed and then recolonized after the disruption.
 What is Ecological Succession?

• The biotic community is a dynamic community. By interaction with

the biotic and abiotic community, there is a change constantly
occurring in an ecosystem.
• These changes finally lead to a community near equilibrium with the
environment and are called a climax community.
• The gradual and predictable changes in the species composition of a
given area are collectively called ecological succession.
• Some species colonize an area during succession, and their
populations become more numerous, whereas populations of other
species decline and even disappear.
Ecological Succession
 Characteristics of Ecological Succession

• The ecological succession has the following characteristics:

1. It is a systematic process.
2. It involves changes in species structure and also increases the
diversity of species.
3. The succession takes place due to changes in the physical
environment and population of the species.
4. The changes that occur are directional and take place as a function
of time.
5. Succession works in a stabilised ecosystem.
6. The population of decomposer components becomes significant.
7. The changes are calculable.
8. The simple food chains will be replaced by complex food chains.
 Ecological Succession Causes

• The causes of ecological succession are mainly three types. These are
as follows:
• 1. Initial or initiating causes– These causes include both biotic and
climatic. It has factors like erosion, wind, fire, natural disasters, etc.
These causes heavily affect the population of that locality.
2. Ecesis causes- These causes are also known as continuing causes.
These can modify the population to adapt to several conditions of the
environment. It includes several factors like aggregation, competition,
migration, etc.
3. Stabilising causes- These causes bring stability to the communities.
It has several factors like the nature of the climatic condition of the
area, fertility of land and abundance of availability of minerals, etc.
 Types of Ecological Succession

• Some of the major types of ecological succession are as follows:

• (a) Primary succession: It starts in a barren area, never having vegetation of any
type where no living organism ever existed. Some bare primary areas are the
newly exposed seafloor, igneous rocks, sand dunes, new cooled lava sediments,
newly submerged areas, etc. As there is no soil, and the conditions are too
hostile to sustain life thus, the succession is slower. It usually takes several
hundred to a thousand years for establishing a biotic community depending
upon the substratum and the climate.
• (b) Secondary succession: It starts in areas that somehow lost all the living
organisms that existed there. Since some soil or sediment is present, succession
is faster. Destruction of the previous community can occur due to forest fire,
flooded lands, landslides, earthquakes, drought, overgrazed areas, storms, etc.
Following such destruction, the process of succession will occur again from the
new environmental conditions. It takes 50−100 years to complete a grassland
and 100−200 years to develop a forest.
Primary & Secondary Succession
 Cont…
• (c) Cyclic Succession: It is a pattern that takes place in an established
community by changing the structure of the ecosystem on a cyclic
basis.
(d) Autogenic Succession: After biotic succession has begun, the
existing vegetation is held responsible for its own replacement by the
new communities by changing the existing environmental condition.
This succession is known as autogenic succession.
(e) Allogenic Succession: In allogenic succession, the existing
community is replaced by other external conditions and not by
existing vegetation itself.
 Types of Successional Communities

• There are three main types of successional communities:

(a) Pioneer community is the one that sets first in a barren area. Examples include lichens
on rock, phytoplankton and zooplanktons in ponds. They survive in the most hostile
environment.
(b) Climax community is the last community in biotic succession, which is relatively
stable and is in near equilibrium with the environment of that area called a climax
community. Example: forests.
(c) Transitional or seral communities are the ones that follow the pioneer community.
Examples include bryophytes, herbs, shrubs in xerosere, submerged, floating etc., in ponds.
They contribute maximum to the formation of a stable community.
The entire series of communities occurring in biotic succession is called sere.
Seral stages or seral communities are individual transitional communities.
• Seral community: It is an intermediate stage of ecological succession that advances towards
the climax community. It consists of simple food chains and food webs.
The different types of seres are mentioned below:
(a) Xerosere or Xerarch succession – When succession takes place in dry areas like a rock
(lithosere), sand (psammosere) and saline conditions (halosere).
Xerosere or Xerarch Succession
 Hydrosere or Hydrarch succession
• When succession starts on the aquatic habitat where water is plenty
and progresses from hydric to mesic conditions.
 Cont…

• (c) Lithosere: This ecological succession develops on bare rock

surfaces.
(d) Psammosere: This ecological succession originates on the sand.
(e) Halosere: The plant succession that begins on salty soil and saline
water.
(f) Senile: This succession takes place on a dead matter of
microorganisms.
(g) Eosere: It shows the development of vegetation in an era.
 Stages of Ecological Succession

• Clements (1916) has discussed the process of ecological succession. This

process involves the following stages, which are as follows:

• 1. Nudation: Development of bare area or nudation without any form of

life. It may be caused due to several factors like volcanic eruptions,
landslides, floods, erosion, earthquake, forest fire, the spread of disease,
etc.
• 2. Invasion: It is the successful establishment of a species in a barren area.
The arrival of reproductive bodies or propagules of various species and
their settlement in the new or bare area occurs by air, water, etc., known as
migration. Adjustment of establishing species with the prevailing
conditions is known as ecesis. Then the individual species are multiplied by
reproduction and increase their numbers; this is called aggregation.
 Stages of Ecological Succession

• 3. Competition and coaction: After aggregation,

the individuals of a species compete with other
organisms for food, space and other resources.
The intraspecific and interspecific
competition takes place along with interaction
with the environment. New invasion by plants
and animals takes place.
4. Reaction: The modification of the
environment through the influence of living
organisms on it is called reaction.
5. Stabilisation (Climax): The stage at which
the final or climax community becomes more or
less stabilised for a longer time in that particular
environment is known as stabilisation.
 Importance of Ecological Succession

• The importance of ecological succession is as follows:

• 1. It shows the way of the sequence of biotic succession. Ecologists
can immediately recognize the seral stage of a biotic community in an
area.
2. It helps in knowing information about techniques to be used during
reforestation and afforestation.
3. The knowledge of biotic succession is used to prevent the growth
of superiors in an area and control the growth of one or more species.
4. Protection of dams by preventing siltation and occurrence of biotic
succession.