CHAPTER

3:
METHODOL
OGY
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 PARTS
• Research Design
• Research Variables
• Sampling and Sample
• Research Instruments
• Data Gathering
Procedure
• Data Analysis
PART 1
 Research
Design
• refers to the overall strategy
that you choose in order to
integrate the different
components of the study in
a coherent and logical way.
Qualitative
Research
Design
This section has the
following contents in
paragraph discussion:
• The research design, or
techniques used as defined
from different sources.
• A discussion of how this
design was/were used in the
present study.
 Research
Variables
• “changing qualities or
characteristics”
• “vary”- undergo
changes or differ from
• State your
independent and
dependent variables

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 1. Independent Variable
& Dependent Variable
• Independent variable
• Also called experimental or predictor variable
• Act as the “cause” in that it precedes, influence, and predict the
dependent variable
• Dependent variable
• Also called the outcome variable
• Act as the “effect” in that they change as a result of being
influenced by an independent variable
 2. Extraneous Variable &
Confounding Variable

• Extraneous variable (“extra”)

• Those that affect the dependent variable but are not controlled
adequately by the researcher
 2. Extraneous Variable &
Confounding Variable

• Confounding variable
• Those that vary systematically with the independent variable and exert
influence on the dependent variable
• That “extra” variable that may ruin an experiment and give useless results
SAMPLING
METHODS
 POPULATION
• Is the totality of all the objects, elements, persons, and
characteristics into consideration. It is known that this
population has common characteristics about which the
research aims to explore.
 SAMPLING
• If refers to the method or process of selecting
respondents or people to answer questions meant
to yield data for a research study.
 TYPES OF
SAMPLING
 PROBABILITY SAMPLING OR
UNBIASED SAMPLING
An equal chance of participation within the
sampling or selection process is given to each
member listed in the sampling frame. By
means of this unbiased sampling, you are able
to obtain a sample that’s capable of
representing the population under study or of
showing strong similarities in characteristics
with the members of the population.
1. SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING
It is a way of selecting individuals
in which all members of the
accessible population are given an
equal chance to be selected. It is a
pure chance selection where every
member of the population have
the same opportunity to be in the
sample. There are various ways of
collecting samples through simple
random sampling. These are fish
bowl technique, roulette wheel, or
use of the table random numbers.
1. SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING
EXAMPLE:
The names of 25
employees from a
company of 250
employees are drawn
from a hat. In this case,
all 250 employees in the
population, have an equal
chance of being chosen.
 2. STRATIFIED RANDOM
SAMPLING
The same with simple random
sampling, stratified random
sampling also offers an equal
chance to all members of the
population to be selected.
However, the population is divided
into two or more groups called
strata or groups before selecting
the samples, in keeping with some
criterion, such as geographic
location, grade level, age, or
income. The samples are randomly
selected from each strata and not
directly from the entire population.
 2. STRATIFIED RANDOM
SAMPLING
EXAMPLE:
A research team is seeking opinions
about religion amongst various age
groups. Instead of collecting
feedback from 326,044,985 U.S
citizens, random samples of around
10,000 can be selected for
research. These 10,000 citizens can
be divided into strata according to
age,i.e, groups of 18-29, 30-39, 40-
49, 50-59, and 60 and above. Each
stratum will have distinct members
and number of members.
3. SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
This procedure is as simple
as selecting samples every
n th (example every 2nd ,
5th ) subject from the list of
the members within the
chosen population until
arriving at a desired total
number of sample size.
Therefore, the selection is
predicated on a
predetermined interval.
3. SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
For instance, if you want to
have a sample of 150, you
may select a set of numbers
like 1 to 15, and out of a list
of 1,500 students, take every
15th name on the list until
you complete the total
number of respondents to
constitute your sample.
4. CLUSTER SAMPLING
The process of randomly selecting
intact groups, not individuals,
which share similar characteristics
within the specified population.
Like stratified random sampling,
cluster sampling also involves
grouping of the population
according to subgroups or
clusters. Clusters are areas from
which an intact group of members
of the population can be found
e.g. Neighborhoods, schools
districts, schools, classrooms.
 4. CLUSTER SAMPLING
A researcher would like to
conduct interview of all public
senior high school teachers on
the academic adjustments
during the new normal across
Mindanao. As a researcher,
cluster will be selected to satisfy
the plan size. In the given
example, the first cluster can be
by region, and the second
cluster can be by division, and
the third cluster can be by
district.
 NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

The subjects are selected based on their

availability or the purpose of the study, and in
some cases, on the sole discretion of the
researcher rather than random selection. In non-
probability sampling, the members of the
population will not have an equal chance of being
chosen, and in certain situations, there will be
members of the population who have no chance of
being selected.
 1. PURPOSEFUL/PURPOSIVE
SAMPLING
The method by which a
sample is chosen by the
researcher on the basis of
pre-selected criteria, and the
experience or knowledge of
the group to be sampled. You
have selected individuals
whom you are sure could
correspond to the objectives
of your study. Purposive
sampling is also known as
judgemental sampling.
 1. PURPOSEFUL/PURPOSIVE
SAMPLING
EXAMPLE:
The study may be attempting
to collect data from positive
COVID-19 patients in a
particular city or country. The
sample size may be
predetermined or based on
theoretical saturation, which
is the point at which the
newly collected data no
longer provides additional
insights.
2. CONVENIENCE SAMPLING
The process of collecting data
from a conveniently available
pool of respondents, often
referred to as “accidental” or
“haphazard” sampling. The
willingness of a person as your
subject to engage with you
counts a lot in this non-
probability sampling method. It
is the most widely used
sampling method as it is
incredibly prompt,
uncomplicated, and economical.
2. CONVENIENCE SAMPLING
EXAMPLE:
If during the data collection
time, you encounter people
walking on a school campus,
along corridors, and along the
park or employees lining up
at an office, and these people
show willingness to respond
to your questions, then you
automatically consider them
as your respondents.
3. SNOWBALL SAMPLING
It is also known as chain referral
sampling or refer to refer
sampling. It is when you do not
know the best individuals to study
because of the unfamiliarity of
the topic or the uncertainty of
events. So during interviews, you
ask participants to suggest other
individuals to be sampled. In this
method participants refer the
researcher to others who may be
able to potentially contribute or
participate in the study.
3. SNOWBALL SAMPLING
EXAMPLE:
If you are studying the level of
customer satisfaction among
the members of an elite country
club, you will find it extremely
difficult to collect primary data
sources unless a member of the
club agrees to have a direct
conversation with you and
provides the contact details of
the other members of the club.
4. QUOTA SAMPLING
A sampling technique whereby
participant quotas are preset
before sampling. The method by
which a researcher collects data
from individuals with identified
characteristics and quotas. You
resort to quota sampling once you
think you know the characteristics
of the target population very well.
In this case, you tend to select
sample participants that share or
indicating the characteristics of the
target population.
4. QUOTA SAMPLING
EXAMPLE:
A cigarette company wants to
find out what age group
prefers what brand of
cigarettes in a particular city.
He/she applies quotas on the
age groups of 21-30, 31-40,
41-50, and 51+. From this
information, the researcher
gauges the smoking trend
among the population of the
city.
SAMPLING
METHODS
 STRATEGY TO ADOPT IN
CHOOSING SAMPLE SIZE IS
DRIVEN BY:
1.Research Questions/purpose
2.Time frame of the study
3.Resources available
Remember:
SAMPLE SIZE ≠ SAMPLING METHOD
PART 2
 Research
Instrument

• one major component

of any type of
research
• Use to gather or
collect data and
information
1. Survey
2. Focus groups
3. Observations
4. Content Analysis
1. INDIVIDUAL INTERVIEW
• oral questionnaire
• the interviewee
gives the needed
information orally
and face-to-face
 Interview

Semi-
Structured Unstructured
structured
• questions are • interviewer • questions arise
planned and asks only a spontaneously
created in advance few in a free-
• All candidates are predetermined flowing
asked the same questions whil conversation,
questions in e the rest of which means
the same order the questions that different
are not candidates are
planned in asked different
advance questions
1. OBSERVATION
Observation
• Perceiving data
through the
Direct Indirect
senses: sight, observation observation
hearing, taste, Gathering data Gathering data with

smell and touch personally the use of gadgets

 Survey

2. SURVEY
Questionnaire Interview
• Most popular data-
gathering technique Closed form Structured
that uses
instruments such as Open form
Semi-
structured
questionnaire or
interview Unstructured
Questionnaire
• Most common instrument or tool
of research for obtaining the data
• paper containing series of
questions formulated for an Questionnaire
individual and independent
answering by several
Closed form Open form
respondents for obtaining
statistical information. Fixed number of Open ended
questions and limited questions
choice of answers
3. CONTENT
ANALYSIS
• search through several
oral or written forms of
communication to find
answers to your research
questions
• Historians
 Data
Gathering
Procedure

• detailed description
on the procedures
how the data were
gathered in the study
based on the
statement of the
problem
Data Analysis
• to examine or study data
• process of understanding data or
known facts or assumptions
serving as the basis of any claims
or conclusions you have about
something
• examine each part or element to
see the relationships between or
among the parts, discover the
orderly or sequential existence
of these parts, search for
meaningful patterns of the
components, and to know the
reasons behind the formation of
such variable patterns
1. Coding
• Act of using symbols like letters or words to represent arbitrary
or subjective data (emotions, opinions, attitudes) to ensure
secrecy or privacy of the data.
2. Collating
• way of bringing together the
coded data
• Giving the data an orderly (graph,
table of responses, etc.)
Steps in Data Analysis
1. Coding of Data
2. Collating of Data
3. Choose your Data Analysis Procedure

DURING THE CONDUCT OF DATA ANALYSIS

1. DESCRIBE DATA: a summary of the findings
2. INTERPRET DATA: coding themes based on literature
3. THEORIZING DATA: general statements
4. CONCLUSION: closing remarks that definitely and concisely settle your aim, objectives
and research questions
 Let’s
think!
1. What is a research
design?
a. A way of conducting research that is
not grounded in theory.
b. The choice between using qualitative
or quantitative methods.
c. The style in which you present your
research findings, e.g. a graph.
d. A framework for every stage of the
collection and analysis of data.
1. What is a research
design?
a. A way of conducting research that is
not grounded in theory.
b. The choice between using qualitative
or quantitative methods.
c. The style in which you present your
research findings, e.g. a graph.
d. A framework for every stage of the
collection and analysis of data.
2. An Independent
variable can be defined
as ____.
a. Changed variable
b. Extraneous variable
c. Confounding variable
d. Effect variable
2. An Independent
variable can be defined
as ____.
a. Changed variable
b. Extraneous variable
c. Confounding variable
d. Effect variable
3. Observations,
interviews and
questionnaires are ways
toa.collect
True primary data.
b. False
3. Observations,
interviews and
questionnaires are ways
toa.collect
True primary data.
b. False
4. You are a social psychologist
partnering with a cultural
anthropologist to study how
cultural values connect to
college students’ perceptions of
cheating in school. Which of the
following would be your best
research instrument?
a. Observation
b. Survey
c. Content analysis
d. Experiment
4. You are a social psychologist
partnering with a cultural
anthropologist to study how
cultural values connect to
college students’ perceptions of
cheating in school. Which of the
following would be your best
research instrument?
a. Observation
b. Survey
c. Content analysis
d. Experiment
5. Siena is conducting a cross-
cultural project on three
different continents. Her
research question involves the
prevalence rates of HIV among
romantic partners. Which is the
best method for her project?
a. Interview
b. Experiment
c. Survey
d. Content analysis
5. Siena is conducting a cross-
cultural project on three
different continents. Her
research question involves the
prevalence rates of HIV among
romantic partners. Which is the
best method for her project?
a. Interview
b. Experiment
c. Survey
d. Content analysis
Any questions?
References