FLUID SOLID SYSTEMS

ECE 3105
Prepared by

Dr. Tariro Tecla

Manhongo
For third year Chemical Engineering
students

National University of
Science and Technology
18 November
2024
 CHAPTER ONE

Introduction to particulate systems

Introduction
Particle technology is a term used to refer to the
science and technology related to the handling and
processing of particles/particulate systems and
powders.

Particle technology is also often described as powder

technology, particle science, or powder science.

Powders and particles are commonly referred to as

Introduction
Particulate materials, granules, powders, or bulk
solids are used widely in all areas of the process
industries. Examples include:
Food processing, detergents
biotechnology, petrochemical
paint, plastics, and cosmetics

mineral processing, metallurgical

Water treatment, power generation
Pharmaceutical, fertilizer, and agricultural
Introduction
For the mentioned industries, knowledge of
particle technology is critical for many
reasons:
Reactor design
Pollution control
Process optimization
Process/Product quality control
Formulation, Mixing, Coating & Drying
Transportation, Handling, & Storage
Raw material or Product purification
Introduction
Ignorance of particle technology may result in

loss of production and eventually low returns,

poor product quality and loss of market share,

risks to health,

Environmental risks

dust explosions, and storage silo collapse.

Introduction
In this chapter, we shall look at characterization of
single particles.
The dynamic behavior of a single particle in the flow
field at Stokes flow regime, the intermediate flow
regime, and the Newton’s law regime is then discussed
in Chapter Two.
Then in the third chapter we will look at the flow of
fluids through packed and fluidized beds.
Characterization of particulates
The complete characterization of a single particle
requires the measurement and definition of the particle
characteristics such as:
size, shape
density,
color, and
surface morphology.
PARTICLE SIZE
Regular-shaped particles can be accurately described by giving the shape and a
number of dimensions, shown in Table 1.1.

Shape Sphere Cube Cylinder Cuboid cone

Dimensions radius Side Radius and Three Radius

length height side and
lenghts height
PARTICLE SIZE
Particles of interest are usually irregular in shape and
different in surface morphology.
There are many different ways and techniques to
characterize the particles.
No single physical dimension can adequately describe
the size of an irregularly shaped particle, just as a
single dimension cannot describe the shape of a
cylinder, a cuboid or a cone.
PARTICLE SIZE
Choice of a dimension to use will in practice depend on
(a)what property or dimension of the particle can be
measured and
(b) the use to which the dimension is to be put.
Depending on the methods employed, the results may
not be completely consistent.
Some methods may be more appropriate than others
for certain selected applications.
Techniques for measuring particle size

Sieving
Elutriation
Microscopy
Sedimentation
Laser diffraction
Cascade impaction
Electrozone sensing
PARTICLE SIZE FOR IRREGULARLY SHAPED
PARTICLES
Many diameters have been defined to characterize the irregular
particles.
The more common ones are:
1. Volume Diameter, dv, defined as the diameter of a sphere
having the same volume as the particle and can be expressed as:
1
 6V p  3
d v  
  
PARTICLE SIZE FOR IRREGULARLY SHAPED
PARTICLES
2. Surface Diameter, ds, defined as the diameter of a sphere having
the same surface area of the particle. Mathematically it can be shown
to be:

1
 Sp  2
d s  
  
PARTICLE SIZE FOR IRREGULARLY SHAPED
PARTICLES

3. The surface–volume diameter, dsv, also known as the Sauter

diameter, is defined as the diameter of a sphere having the same
external-surface-area-to-volume ratio as the particle. This can be
expressed as:
3
6V p d
d  sv  v
2
S p d s
PARTICLE SIZE FOR IRREGULARLY SHAPED
PARTICLES
4. Sieve Diameter, dA, defined as the width of the minimum square aperture
in the sieve screen through which the particle will pass.
5. The Stokes diameter, dst, is the free-falling diameter of the
particle in the Stokes law region and can be calculated from:
18U t
d st 
 p   f g
PARTICLE SIZE FOR IRREGULARLY SHAPED
PARTICLES

6. Free-Falling Diameter, df , is the diameter of a sphere having the

same density and the same free-falling velocity (or terminal velocity)
as the particle in a fluid of same density and viscosity.
In the Stokes law region, the free-falling diameter is the Stokes
diameter defined earlier.
PARTICLE SIZE FOR IRREGULARLY SHAPED
PARTICLES
7. Drag Diameter, dD, is defined as the diameter of a sphere having
the same resistance to motion as the particle in a fluid of the same
density and viscosity and moving at the same velocity.

8. Perimeter Diameter, dc, is the diameter of a circle having the same

perimeter as the projected outline of the particle.
9. Projected Area/Equivalent circle Diameter, da, is defined as the
diameter of a sphere having the same projected area as the particle
viewed in a direction perpendicular to the plane of the greatest
stability of the particle (see Fig. 1.1).
10. Feret Diameter, dF, is a statistical diameter representing the mean
value of the distances between pairs of parallel tangents to a projected
outline of the particle, as shown in Fig. 1.1. The Feret diameter is
usually used in particle characterization employing the optical imaging
technique.
11. Martin Diameter, dM, is also a statistical diameter defined as the
mean chord length of the projected outline of the particle, which
appropriately bisects the area of the projected profile:
SUMMARY ON EQUIVALENT DIAMETERS
PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION

Particles do not exist as single entities, but, rather as a group or a

population of particulates.
A population of particles is described by a particle size distribution.
Most particulate systems of practical interest consist of particles of a
wide range of sizes and it is necessary to be able to give a quantitative
indication of the mean size and of the spread of sizes.
PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION

The results of a particle size analysis can most conveniently be

represented by means of a size distribution curve, in which the
proportion of particles (x) smaller than a certain size (d) is plotted
against that size (d).
The distributions can be by number, surface, mass, or volume
(where particle density does not vary with size, the mass distribution
is the same as the volume distribution).
PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION

In reality these distributions are smooth continuous curves.

However, size measurement methods often divide the size
spectrum into size ranges or classes and the size distribution
becomes a histogram.
From these results a cumulative size distribution can be built up
and this can then be approximated by a smooth curve provided that
the size intervals are sufficiently small.
PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION
Size class, microns Count Percent Cumulative percent

0–4 104 10.4 10.4

4–6 160 16.0 26.4
6–8 161 16.1 42.5
8–9 75 7.5 50.0
9 – 10 67 6.7 56.7
10 – 14 187 18.6 75.3
14 – 16 61 6.1 81.4
16 – 20 79 7.7 89.3
20 – 35 103 10.3 99.6
35 – 50 4 0.4 100
>50 0 0.0 100
Totals 1000 100%
PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION

The percent in each class is calculated by dividing

the count for each class by the total number of
particles then multiplying by 100%.
The cumulative percent undersize is obtained by
adding the current percent in the size class to the
total above it.
Thus, the first one is 10.4%; the second is 10.4% +
16.0% = 26.4% and so on until one reaches 100%.
Histogram of the Frequency Distribution
The plot shows the count (the number) of particles vs. size class.
In statistics this is called the frequency of occurrence in each size
class. But it doesn’t look much like a size distribution, does it?
The size classes are not all equal and so it is difficult to make
comparisons.
To remedy the situation, divide the count by the size class width to
get the Frequency/micron.
This allows us to compare distributions made with different size
classes.
The differential frequency Distribution
Size class, microns Count Frequency/micron Fraction/micron
0–4 104 26.0 0.0260
4–6 160 80.0 0.0800
6–8 161 80.5 0.0805
8–9 75 75.0 0.0750
9 – 10 67 67.0 0.0670
10 – 14 187 46.5 0.0465
14 – 16 61 30.5 0.0305
16 – 20 79 19.8 0.0198
20 – 35 103 6.87 0.0687
35 – 50 4 0.267 0.0003
>50 0 0
Totals 1000
HISTOGRAM OF FREQUENCY PER MICRON
Now the area in any bar represents the total amount, in this
case number of particles, in the size class.

With the Frequency/μm plot, we can determine mean, mode and

other measures of size distribution.

However, we can’t compare this distribution to another one

unless the total number of particles counted was equal.
HISTOGRAM OF FRACTION/M

In order to compare distributions with different total counts, we must divide

each Frequency/μm by the total number of particles.
Its shape is exactly the same as that of the
Frequency/μm; however, the y-axis is now fraction/μm.
If you had different measurements, you could overlay
them in this type of plot to see if they were equal or not.
The fraction/micron plot is called a differential frequency
distribution.
Particle size distributions may be expressed as
differential frequency distribution curves or cumulative
curves.
The differential frequency Distribution
THE CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY CURVE
 DIFFERENCES IN DISTRIBUTIONS

Recall that we said, for a given population of particles, the distributions can be by mass,
number or surface.
We can make conversions between distributions and these can differ dramatically
Table 1.4 shows the difference between distributions for the same
population of man-made objects orbiting the earth (New Scientist,
13 October 1991).
The number distribution tells us that only 0.2% of the objects are
greater than 10 cm.
However, these larger objects make up 99.96% of the mass of the
population, and the 99.3% of the objects which are less than 1.0 cm
in size make up only 0.01% of the mass distribution.
Which distribution to use is dependent on the end use of the
information.
Size (cm) Number of % by % by
objects number mass

10 - 1000 7 000 0.2 99.96

1 – 10 17 500 0.5 0.03
0 – 1.0 3 500 000 99.3 0.01
TOTAL 3 524 500 100 100
Many modern size analysis instruments actually measure a
number distribution, which is rarely needed in practice.
When we convert between distributions it is necessary to make
assumptions about the constancy of shape and density with size.
Since these assumptions may not be valid, the conversions are
likely to be in error.
Also, calculation errors are introduced into the conversions. For
example, imagine that we used an electron microscope to produce
a number distribution of size with a measurement error of -2%.
Converting the number distribution to a mass distribution will
triple the error involved (i.e. the error becomes -6%).
For these reasons, conversions between distributions are to be
avoided wherever possible.
This can be done by choosing the measurement method which
gives the required distribution directly.
Describing the population by a single
number
In most practical applications, we require to describe the particle
size of a population of particles by a single number.

There are many options available; the mode, the median, and
several different means including but not limited to the arithmetic,
geometric, quadratic, harmonic, etc mean.
Describing the population by a single
number
Whichever expression of central tendency of the particle size of the
population we use must reflect the property or properties of the
population of importance to us.
We are, in fact, modelling the real population with an artificial
population of mono-sized particles.
Describing the population by a single
number

The mode is the most frequently occurring size in the sample.

For the same sample, different modes would be obtained for
distributions by number, mass, surface and volume.
The mode has no practical significance as a measure of central
tendency and so is rarely used in practice.
Describing the population by a single
number

The median is easily read from the cumulative distribution as the

50% size; the size which splits the distribution into two equal
parts.
In a mass distribution, for example, half of the particles by mass
are smaller than the median size. Since the median is easily
determined, it is often used.
However, it has no special significance as a measure of central
tendency of particle size.
Describing the population by a single
number

Many different means can be defined for a given size distribution.

1. Mean particle size
If the particle size distribution is a number distribution, the average
diameter for that distribution is the mean particle size.
For example, this is a number distribution for a population of 100
particles, for which the mean particle dimeter is 16.4m.
Describing the population by a single
number
Size, µm Count frequency
0–5 14
5 – 10 18
10 – 15 17
15 – 20 26
20 – 30 12
30 – 40 8
40 – 50 5
Describing the population by a single
number
2. Mass mean diameter
If the particle size distribution is a mass distribution, the average
diameter for that distribution is the mass mean diameter.
3. Mean mass diameter
The mean mass diameter is defined as the size of particles which is
such that if all the particles are of this size, the total mass will be the
same as in the mixture.
Describing the population by a single
number
4. Mean volume diameter
The mean volume diameter is defined as the size of particles which
is such that if all the particles are of this size, the total volume will be
the same as in the mixture.
5. Volume mean diameter
If the particle size distribution is a volume distribution, the average
diameter for that distribution is the volume mean diameter
Describing the population by a single
number

6. Surface mean diameter

If the particle size distribution is a surface distribution, the average
diameter for that distribution is the surface mean diameter.
7. Mean surface diameter
The mean surface diameter is defined as the size of particles which is
such that if all the particles are of this size, the total surface will be
the same as that of the mixture.
Particle Characterization Techniques

There are many techniques that can be employed to characterize

particles, some simple and primitive and some complicated and
sophisticated.
Almost every technique is associated with intrinsic experimental
errors and implicit assumptions.
Thus care must be exercised to select proper techniques for your
specific applications.
Techniques for measuring particle size
Sieving
Elutriation
Microscopy
Sedimentation
Laser diffraction
Cascade impaction
Electrozone sensing
SIEVING
The most commonly used method for classifying powders is to sieve
the particles through a series of screens with standardized mesh
size by sifting, swirling, shaking, or vibrating.
Two standard mesh sizes, U.S. sieve size and Tyler sieve size, are
usually used in the U.S. In the European practice, the British
Standard and German DIN sieve sizes are also employed.
The mesh number of a sieve refers to the number of parallel wires
per inch in the weave of the screen.
SIEVING
SIEVING
The mesh size was designed so that the aperture or opening of
the alternating members in the series has a factor of 2½.
For example, the U.S. 12 mesh with an opening of 1.68mm is 2½
times the U.S. 16 mesh with an opening of 1.19 mm.
The result of the sieve size analysis is commonly plotted in a
logarithmic-scale graph expressing the cumulative weight
percentage under size as the abscissa and the particle size as the
ordinate.
SIEVING
There, the 2½ factor in the mesh size arrangement allows the size
data points to be almost equally spaced on the logarithmic scale.
Also, experimentally, many crushed materials yield a straight line if
plotted.
The inaccuracies and uncertainties of sieve analysis stem from the
discrete steps of the mesh size arranged at an approximate factor
of 2½ between successive mesh sizes.
SIEVING
Sieve analysis does not provide the information for the largest and
the smallest particle sizes.
The size cut provides an approximate value for the mean particle
size within the cut.
Sieve analysis also does not differentiate the particle shape.
A needle-shaped particle can either pass through a mesh or be
retained on the screen, depending on its orientation during sifting.
SIEVING
The result of sieve analysis is also dependent on the time of
sieving action, the particle loading on the sieve, and sieve
blinding (also called pegging).
Enlargement of aperture due to wire erosion of a sieve can cause
discrepancy as well.
For small particles, agglomeration due to static electricity or
moisture can also occur.
SIEVING
The smallest mesh size for the Tyler Series is 400mesh, equivalent
to a 38m opening, while the smallest mesh size for the U.S.
Series is 635 mesh, equivalent to a 20m opening.
For particles finer than 20m, the surface and electrostatic forces
become important, and particle classification by sieve analysis is
not recommended.
PARTICLE IMAGING
Direct measurement of particle dimensions is also possible
from enlarged photographic or electronic images of microscopes.
There are three types of microscopes commonly employed, i.e.,
the optical microscope, the scanning electron microscope (SEM),
and the transmission electron microscope (TEM). The optical
microscope is employed for particles from 1mm to about
150mm.
PARTICLE IMAGING
Particles to be imaged in an optical microscope are usually
dispersed in a drop of viscous fluid on a glass slide.
Their images are then visually compared with a set of standard
circles, geometric shapes, or linear grids to derive their actual sizes
and shapes.
Both SEM and TEM make use of electron beams and can be used
for particles from 5mm down to as small as 0:01mm. They are
especially useful for revealing the surface morphology of extremely
small particles.
THE OPTICAL MICROSCOPE
THE SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
THE TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
Gravity and Centrifugal Sedimentation
The falling speeds of particles in a viscous fluid under the influence of gravity
are used to measure the particle size in the gravity sedimentation technique.
The measured speeds are then converted to Stokes diameters by applying
the Stokes equation, assuming that the particles are all spherical in shape.
Since the irregularly shaped particles fall with different orientations in the
vertical direction and thus different settling velocities, similar irregularly
shaped particles can have a range of Stoke diameters.
Gravity and Centrifugal Sedimentation
The following assumptions are made:
 The suspension is sufficiently dilute for the particles to settle
as individuals (i.e. not hindered settling.
 Motion of the particles in the liquid obeys Stokes’ law (true
for particles typically smaller than 50mm).
 Particles are assumed to accelerate rapidly to their terminal
free fall velocity UT so that the time for acceleration is negligible.
Gravity and Centrifugal Sedimentation
Gravity and Centrifugal Sedimentation
Alternatively, centrifugal force instead of gravitational force can
be created to enhance the sedimentation performance.
Depending on the size of the centrifugal arm and the speed of
rotation, many times the gravitational force can be applied.
Resistivity and Electrical Zone Sensing
Technique
The resistivity and electrical zone sensing technique measures the
particle size by measuring the change of resistivity properties when
the particles are passed through the sensing zone of the instruments.
The well-known Coulter counter is a resistivity zone sensing
instrument (see Fig. 1.7).
The particles to be analyzed are first suspended and homogenized
in an electrolyte and then are forced to pass through a cylindrical
orifice placed between two electrodes.
Resistivity and Electrical Zone Sensing
Technique
Resistivity and Electrical Zone Sensing
Technique
The passage of particles through the orifice generates voltage
pulses that are amplified, recorded, and analyzed to produce a
particle size distribution.
The instrument is usually calibrated with standard particles such as
latex spheres of known size.
Resistivity and Electrical Zone Sensing
Technique
The instrument is usually calibrated with standard particles such
as latex spheres of known size.
The data are analyzed by assuming that the sensing zone is
isotropic (i.e., the exact location of the particles in the sensing
zone is unimportant) and the pulse height is proportional to the
volume of the particle.
The results from this analysis are thus the equivalent spherical
diameters of the particles.
Elutriation
Particle size characterization by elutriation makes use of the same
kind of principles employed by the sedimentation.
Instead of letting particles settle with gravity, the particles are
actually carried out against gravity during elutriation.
In vertical elutriators, the particles with terminal velocities less
than the vertical fluid velocity will be elutriated out.
Elutriation
By operating the elutriator at different flow conditions, the
particle size distribution of the sample can be calculated.
The flow in the elutriators is usually laminar flow, and the
Stokes equation is used to estimate the Stokes diameter of the
particle by assuming that the particle is spherical.
Elutriation
Cascade Impaction
The cascade impaction technique is based on similar principles
employed in the elutriation technique and is also based on the
inertia of the particles.
The particles with terminal velocities smaller than the flow
velocity will be carried along by the gas flow.
In addition, smaller particles will tend to follow the streamlines of
the flow better than the larger particles owing to their smaller
inertia.
Cascade Impaction
When the flow changes direction because of the presence of a
plane surface, larger particles with larger inertia will impact on the
plane surface and be collected.
By successive decreases in flow velocity from stage to stage, the
particles can be collected and classified into different particle size
fractions.
Cascade Impaction
The optical sensing technique or Laser
Diffraction

The optical sensing technique measures the scattered light from a

particle passing through a sensing volume illuminated by a light
source, such as a white light or a laser.
The intensity of the scattered light is then related to the size of
the particle.
In an ideal situation, a monotonic relationship exists between the
intensity of the scattered light and the particle size and thus allows
unique determination of the size of the particle.
The optical sensing technique or Laser
Diffraction
In reality, the light-scattering properties of a particle depend in a
very complex way on its refractive index and shape, and on the
wavelength of the light used to illuminate the particle.
Generally, there are two basic designs: the scattered light can
either be collected in a narrow forward direction in the direction of
the illuminating light or be collected in a wide angular range.
The optical sensing technique or Laser
Diffraction
Generally, there are two basic designs: the scattered light can
either be collected in a narrow forward direction in the direction of
the illuminating light or be collected in a wide angular range.
The forward scattering systems are more suitable for sizing
particles with light-absorbing properties, since for these particles
there exists a monotonic relationship between the intensity and the
size.
The optical sensing technique or Laser
Diffraction
For non-absorbing particles, however, multiple values exist for
particles larger than 1 mm.
Thus most of the existing particle-sizing instruments make use of
the second scattering geometry to collect the scattered light into a
large angular range oriented either perpendicularly or axially with
respect to the light beam direction, see Fig. 1.9.
The instrument is usually calibrated with nonabsorbing spherical
polystyrene latex particles, and the scattered light intensity is a
monotonic function of the particle size.
The optical sensing technique or Laser
Diffraction
However, the presence of absorptivity can reduce substantially
the sizing sensitivity of the instrument.
An instrument would consist of a laser as a source of coherent
light of known fixed wavelength (typically 0:63 mm), a suitable
detector (usually a slice of photosensitive silicon with a number of
discrete detectors, and some means of passing the sample of
particles through the laser light beam.
The optical sensing technique or
Laser Diffraction
Particle shape

Natural and man-made solid particles occur in almost

any imaginable shape, and most particles of practical
interest are irregular in shape.
A variety of empirical factors have been proposed to
describe non-spherical shapes of particles.
These empirical descriptions of particle shape are
usually provided by identifying two characteristic
parameters from the following four:
Particle shape
(1)volume of the particle,

(2) surface area of the particle,

(3) projected area of the particle, and

(4) projected perimeter of the particle.

Particle shape
Sphericity

Circularity

Operational sphericity and circularity

Heywood shape factor

EXERCISES

1. For the particle below, calculate the following diameters:

i) the equivalent volume diameter;
ii) the equivalent surface diameter;
iii) the surface-volume diameter;
iv) the sieve diameter
v) the projected area diameters
EXERCISES
2. Convert the number distribution below to mass,
volume, and surface distributions assuming that the
population consists of spherical particles of density 2850
kg/m3.
Size class n microns Count Percent Cumulative percent
0–4 104 10.4 10.4
4–6 160 16.0 26.4
6–8 161 16.1 42.5
8–9 75 7.5 50.0
9 – 10 67 6.7 56.7
10 – 14 187 18.6 75.3
14 – 16 61 6.1 81.4
16 – 20 79 7.7 89.3
20 – 35 103 10.3 99.6
35 – 50 4 0.4 100
>50 0 0.0 100
Totals 1001 100%