HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND VICTIMOLOGY

John Mark C. Poquita, RCRIM, MSCJ,CST, CCS,

Heredity which refers to the transmission of genes from
parents to offspring or the sum of qualities and
potentialities genetically derived from one’s ancestors
and the aggregate of social and cultural conditions of a
community wherein a person is situated will
tremendously shape and influence the development,
character, type of human behavior of a person and
society in general.
 Behavior
• Behavior refers to the actions of an organism or system usually in
relation to its environment which includes the other organisms or
systems around as well as the physical environment. It is the response
of the organism or system to various stimuli or inputs, whether
internal or external, conscious or subconscious, overt or covert and
voluntary or involuntary
• Behavior can also define as anything that you do that can be directly
observed, measured and repeated. Some examples of behavior are
reading, crawling, singing, holding hand and the like (TIcao, 2004).
 Classification of Human Behavior
• Habitual – refers to demeanors which are resorted to in a regular basis it may be
further characterized as: emotional and language.
• Example, a child brushes his teeth every morning and after taking his meals and
before going to bed; Filipinos who have the knack of showing respect to elders by
answering in conversations with “po” and “opo” and mature persons crying when
they are sentimental and hugging and kissing in response to their emotions.
• Instinctive – are human conduct which is unlearned and inherent, said to be present
at birth of a person and significantly influenced by heredity.
• Example, a person will naturally eat and take nourishment the moment he/she
becomes hungry; drinking water when one is thirsty; resting if one is tired; crying if
one is hurt; and the most common instinct of man which is his instinct of self-
preservation.
• Symbolic – are human conduct in response to stimuli undertaken by
means of substitution.
• Example, the conduct of keeping portraits and photographs to commit to
memory an pleasant experience or an important person; diplomas and
awards in graduation to signify one’s academic achievements and a
handshake or contract signing to indicate an agreement between persons.
• Complex – refers to two or more habitual behavior which occurs in one
situation.
• Example, watching television while eating; texting while driving; singing
while working and the likes.
 Human Emotions and Its Relation to
Behavior
The word emotion includes a wide array of observation behaviors,
expressed feelings and changes in the body state. This variety in
intended meanings of the word emotion makes it hard to study. For most
persons, emotions are very personal states, difficult to define or to
identify except in the most obvious instances. Moreover, many aspects of
emotion give the impression which is unconscious to us. Even simple
emotional states appear to be much more complicated than states as
hunger and thirst.
 To simplify the concept of emotions, three definitions of various

aspects of emotions can be distinguished :

• Emotion is a feeling that is private and subjective. Humans can report
an extraordinary assortment of states, which they can feel or
experience. Some reports are accomplished by obvious signs of
enjoyment or distress, but often these reports have no overt
indications. In many cases, the emotions we note in ourselves seem to
be blends of different states.
Emotion is a condition of psychological arousal an expression or display
of distinctive somatic and automatic responses. This emphasis implies
that emotional states can be defined by particular constellations of
bodily responses. Specifically, these responses involve autonomously
innervated visceral organs, like the heart or stomach. This second aspect
of emotion allows us to observe emotions in both animals and human
being.
• Emotions are actions commonly deemed such as defending
or attacking in reaction to a threat. This aspect of emotion is
especially relevant to Darwin’s point of view of the
functional roles of emotion. He said that emotions had an
important endurance role because they generated actions to
dangerous situations.
• These are three commonly accepted aspects of behavior, but
some researchers
• add two others aspects: motivational state and cognitive
processing.
 Categories
Many psychologists have tried to subdivide emotions in categories. For example
Wilhelm Wundt, the great nineteenth (19th) century psychologists, offered the
outlook that emotions consists of three fundamental dimensions, each one of a
pair of opposite states:
• Pleasantness/unpleasantness
• Tension/release
• Excitement/relaxation
• Plutchik’s advocated that there are eight basic emotions grouped in
four pairs of opposites:
• Joy/sadness
• Acceptance/disgust
• Anger/fear
• Surprise/anticipation
Three dimensional cone with a vertical
dimension reflecting emotional
intensity.
 Gestures
• Many of our gestures are unintended. We scratch our head to remove itch, but not to convey a message to
someone else. Although these acts have no specific purpose with regard to inter-personal
communication, they may reveal information about a person.
• For example, people who are nervous, tend to scratch their head more frequently than others. Therefore,
it is hard to hide emotional feelings, since many unintentional movements do reveal information.
• If a student following a course lays his head to rest in his hands, it may be a sign of fatigue, but will also
reflect that the course is boring, as most people do not feel tired when courses are interesting and
exciting.
• Those “unintentional” acts may also be used intentionally.
• For example, a student who wants to make fun of a teacher may pretend that the course is boring by
putting his head at rest in his hands.
 Body Language
• Body language is usually more revealing than words. Words by other people
usually tell you what other people want to say, while body posture usually tells,
what they really feel and think. They convey for example emotions, thoughts
and how they think. It is easier to lie with words, than with body language.
• Psychologists have discovered that when people try to simulate body language,
they change many other things. By walking more upright, people may really feel
more confident. When body language is changed, people will respond different
to these changes. Body language, therefore, has effects for the interaction with
other people.
 Meeting People
• When you encounter a person for the first time, the first 10 seconds will give
an idea, which to a large extent will determine whether you will like this
person or not. In these first ten seconds, you will become aware of
impressions like nervousness, seriousness, etc. these first seconds will also
manipulate to a large extent the rest of the conversation and any further
contacts. Therefore the first impression is very important.
• During the first encounter, it is good to look carefully at the other person. If
he or she disapproves your behavior, you should adopt your behavior.
Behavior should be appropriate for the situation. For example, a firm and
long hand shaking is quite usual for meeting a friend you have not seen for a
long time, but quite inappropriate on a funeral.
 Eyes
• A significant factor in the first contact is the eyes. The eyes should
gaze at the person. If you want to astound the person, you should
open your eyes slightly more than usual, since raising the eye brows
gives people the impression that they are welcome. After the first
“hello”, you should retain eye contact, whichprevents the impression
of nervousness with the other person. You should also smile and look
friendly.
 The Way You Breathe
• By breathing you not only supply oxygen for the body. Breathing also
displays how you feel. When you are nervous or angry you will
breathe faster and when you are sad you often breathe in jerks as if
you are crying. Your breathing is also signs; when you want to disrupt
a speaking person you can do that by inhaling loudly and shortly, a
loud sign means that you comprehend the matter that is being
conveyed to you.
 Shrugged Shoulders
• You can identify stressed shoulders by the fact that they are a bit shrugged, which does make
the head look smaller. The significance of the signal comes from crouching in dangerous
circumstances. The meaning of this posing relies on the combination. In combination with
big eyes it would mean that someone is concerned about something that is going to happen.
In concoction with a face that is turned away it means that the person wants to be left
unaccompanied. An introvert person has nearly always those stressed shoulders
• By most of the people the left and the right shoulder are of the same height. When they are
not, it often means that someone is skeptical about what he is going to do. With this
movement we replicate unconscious that we are weighting the possibilities.
• Sometimes when someone makes this movement, his head will move a little like he is
looking above.
 Characteristics of Human Behavior
• Primarily native or primarily learned. The extreme of the mechanistic view is the
theory of instincts. An instinct is an innate biological force, which commands the
organism to behave in a particular way. The main advocate of the instinct theory
was the psychologist McDougall. He theorized that all thinking and behavior is
the result of instincts, which are fixed from birth, but which can be adjusted and
experience.
• In this book Social Psychology McDougall enumerated several instinctive drives,
• like fear, curiosity, aggression and reproduction. By changes and combinations of
instincts he tried to explain the whole repertoire of human behavior.
• The instinct theory was supported by many psycho-analysts. For example, Freud
emphasized that human behavior could be rationalized by two major instincts:
the instinct survive and the instinct to avoid death which causes aggression.
It became obvious that many instincts were required to explain human
behavior and even worse, these instincts did not explain very much: so
many instincts were postulated such that any type of behavior could be
explained. A better phrasing would be to say that instincts provide a
description of behavior, rather than an explanation.
In the 1920’s instinct theory was placed by the theory of
drives. A driving force originates from a natural need, like
thirst. Such a situation stimulates the organism to
comply with the need. Lack of food causes chemical
changes in the blood, which causes the need for food,
which stimulates the organism to look for food.
Behavior may also be attributed to the learning or cognitive process of
man. Learning denotes a permanent change as the result of specific
experiences. Learning is basic for understanding behavior. Learning may be
defined as a relative permanent change in behavior that occurs as the
result of prior experience.
 There are several types of learning:
• Associative learning which is the most basic form of learning. It is making a new association
between events in the environment. Psychologists distinguish two types associative learning:
the classical conditioning and the operant conditioning.
• Cognitive learning. It is the more complicated type of learning. This type of learning a large
overlap with memory and language.

• Evoked by external stimuli or internal need. Philosophers in the seventeenth and eighteenth
century Like Descartes and Hobbes shared a mechanistic view. They thought that some of our
actions are the result of internal or external forces, which are not under voluntary control.
Hobbes, for example, claimed that underlying reasons for behavior are the avoidance of pain
and the quest for pleasure.
• Automatic, Voluntary, Conscious. Every moment of the day your nervous
system is active. It exchanges millions of signals corresponding with
feeling, thoughts and actions. A simple example of how important the
nervous system is your behavior is meeting an acquaintance, relative or a
friend or stranger.
• The visual information of your eyes is sent to your brain by nervous cells.
There the information is interpreted and translated into a signal to take
action. The brain sends a command to your voice or to another action
system like muscles or glands. For example, you may start walking
towards him.
• Your nervous system enables this rapid recognition
and action. The nervous system is the most complex
system of the human body. The human brain itself
consists of at least 10 billion neurons. Single-cell
creatures do not need a nervous system. They are in
immediate contact with their environment and do
not need communication between cells. Multi-celled
creatures need the nervous system for the
communication between their cells.
 Attributes of Human Behavior
• Duration – refers to the aspect of human behavior in terms of
function of time, how long or brief the internal may be.
• Extensity – traits of human behavior which centers on size, distance,
location.
• Intensity – features of human behavior which focuses in terms of
magnitude, mild, strong.
• Quantity – refers to the aspect of human behavior dealing with the
normal and abnormal traits.
 There are basically three types on how
does human behavior takes place:
• Sensation – the feelings or impression of stimulus which are as follows;
Visual – refers to man’s sense of sight.
Olfactory – refers to our sense of smelling.
Cutaneous - refers to our sense of touch or feeling.
Auditory – man’s sense of hearing.
Gustatory – man’s sense of taste.
• Perception – knowledge of stimulus
• Awareness – psychological activity according to interpretation and experience of object or
stimulus.
 People intermingle by three (3) psychological positions or
behavioral patterns called ego states:

• Parent ego state – which may be characterized as protective, idealistic,

evaluative, and righteous, refers to laws, rules and standards.
• Adult ego states – which centers more upon reason, factual, flexible,
views as co-equal, worthy and reasonable human being.
• Child ego state – which may be easily described as dependent,
rebellious, selfish, demanding, impatient and emotional.
 Human performance, conduct and execution are
classified into two (2) which are as follows:

• Complimentary – This takes place if stimulus and response patterns

from one ego state to another are parallel.
• Non-complimentary – This is performed if stimulus and response
patterns from one ego state to another are not parallel.
 Transactional Analysis
• The study of social interactions of the people its objective is to provide better
understanding of how people relate to each other so that they may develop improve
communication and human relationship.
• As we mature and develop in our lives, we also acquire social attitudes which strongly
influence our behavior. We internalize the outlook of the society around us by making the
attitudes our own. Besides attitudes, people internalize social expectations about how to
behave. The process through which society influences individuals to internalize attitudes
and expectations is called “socialization”. Individuals do not automatically recognize but
gradually accept cultural attitudes and roles. The individual is often unconscious of is
acceptance of these socially derived roles, roles are often accepted unconsciously. This is
usually accomplished through the imitation of role models.
When individuals play these character dictated by the culture within which
they live, they are sometimes contradictory with their own inner beliefs.
Frequently, we may act as if we concur with our perceived social
expectations, however we do not want to disappoint the people who expect
us to meet a particular set of requirements. This may create an imbalance
which may cause one’s behavior to become illogical due to these perceived
social influences.
 Abnormal Behavior and Criminal
Psychology
• Criminal Psychology is a study that deals on criminal behavior. It is a
must for police officers as knowledge to assess the difference in
abnormal behavior can enable them to make important judgments
regarding the seriousness of criminal behavior (Bautista and Guevara)
• Abnormal Behavior is something deviating from the
normal or differing from the typical, is a subjectively
defined behavioral characteristic, assigned to those
with rare or dysfunctional conditions. It may be
abnormal when it is unusual, socially unacceptable,
self-defeating, dangerous or suggestive of faulty
interpretation of reality or of personal distress
(Rathus, 1991).
Abnormal Behavior is behavior that is
deviant, maladaptive or personally
distressful over a long period of time
(King, 2008).
American Psychiatric Association (2001-2006) defines
abnormal behavior in medical terms as a mental illness
that affects or is manifested in a person’s brain and can
affect that way a person thinks, behaves and interacts
with people.
 Psychopathology
Psychopathology is the scientific study of mental, emotional and behavior disorders as well
as abnormal or maladaptive behavior.
Abnormal Behavior could be recognized through any of the following:
• Deviation from Statistical Norm – the word abnormal means “away from the norm”. Many
population facts are measured such as height, weight and intelligence. Most of the people
fall within the middle range of intelligence, but a few are abnormally stupid. But
according to this definition, a person who is extremely intelligent should be classified as
abnormal. Examples are:
• Intelligence – it is statistically abnormal for a person to get a score about 145 on an IQ test
or to get a score below 55, but only the lower score is considered abnormal (Wakefield,
1992).
• Anxiety – a person who is anxious all the time or has a high level of anxiety and someone
who almost never feels anxiety are all considered to be abnormal.
 ABNORMAL.
• Deviation from Social Norm – every culture has certain standards for
acceptable behavior; behavior that deviates from that standard is
considered to be abnormal behavior. But those standards can change
with
• Personal Distress – the fourth criterion considers abnormally in terms of
the individual’s subjective feelings, personal stress, rather than his
behavior. Most people commonly diagnosed as mentally ill feel
miserable, anxious, depressed and may suffer from insomnia (whitford,
2006)
• Symptoms of Abnormal Behavior
• Long Periods of Discomfort - this could be anything as simple as worrying about a calculus
test or grieving the death of a loved one. This distress, however, is related to a real, related
or threatened event and passes with time. When such distressing feelings, however, persist
for an extended period of time and seem to be unrelated to events surrounding the person,
they would be considered abnormal and could suggest a psychological disorder.
• Impaired Functioning – a distinction must be made between simply a passing period of
inefficiency and prolonged inefficiency which seems unexplainable. For instance, a very
brilliant person consistently fails in his classes or someone who constantly changes his
jobs for no apparent reason.
• Bizarre Behavior – has no rational basis seems to
indicate that the individual is confused. The psychoses
frequently results to hallucinations or delusions.
• Disruptive Behavior – means impulsive, apparently
uncontrollable behavior that disrupts the lives of others
or deprives them of their human rights on a regular
basis. This type of behavior is characteristics of a severe
psychological disorder. An example of this is the
antisocial personality disorder (spoor, 1999).
 Mental Disorder
• Mental disorder refers to the significant impairment in psychological functioning.
• Types of Mental Disorders
• Psychosis – it refers to a severe mental disorder characterized by a retreat from reality, by
hallucinations and delusions and by social withdrawal.
• Organic Mental Disorder – it refers to a mental or emotional problem caused by brain
diseases or injuries.
• Substance - related Disorder – refers to an abuse or dependence on a mood or behavior
altering drug.
• Mood Disorder – it refers to a disturbance in mood or emotion, such as depression or mania.
• Anxiety Disorder – it refers to a disruptive feeling of fear, apprehension or anxiety or a
distortion in behavioral anxiety.
• Somatoform Disorder – it refers to a physical symptom that mimics a disease
or an injury for which there is no identifiable physical cause.
• Dissociative Disorder – it refers to a psychological disorder that involves a
sudden loss of memory or changes in identity.
• Personality Disorder – it is a maladaptive personality pattern. It is a
psychological disorder that is believed to have resulted from personalities
that developed during childhood.
• Sexual and Gender Identity Disorder - it refers to any of a wide range of
difficulties with sexual identity, deviant sexual behavior or sexual
adjustment.
• Neurosis – it is an outdated term once used to refer, as a group, to anxiety
disorders, somatoform disorders and some forms of depression.
 Insanity
• Insanity is not a psychological or psychiatric term but a legal term. Insanity
has not one but three different legal meanings, depending on whether it’s
used as a criminal defense, in a hearing on competency to stand trial or in a
hearing on involuntary commitment to mental institution (santrock, 2000).
• A person is insane if he/she is not able to judge between right and wrong. It
is the mental inability in managing one’s affairs or to be aware of the
consequences of one’s actions and it is established
• United States Federal Court legally defines insanity as the inability to
appreciate the nature and quality or wrongfulness of one’s acts (redding,
2006).
 Rule of Intelligence in Criminal Case
• McNaughton Rule - In 1724 an English court maintained that a man was not responsible
for act if “he does not know what he is doing, no more a wild beast”
• Modern standards of legal responsibility, however, have been based on the McNaughton
decisions of 1843. The McNaughton rule was a standard to be applied by the jury, after
hearing medical testimony from prosecution and defense experts. The rule created a
presumption of sanity, unless the defense proved “at the time of committing the act, the
accused was laboring under such a defect of reason, from disease of the mind, as not
know the nature and quality of the act he was doing or, if he did know it, that he did not
know what he was doing was wrong”.
• The rule was adopted in the US, and the disposition of knowing right from wrong
remained the basis for most decisions of legal insanity (smith, et al, 2003).
Durham Rule – states that “an accused is not criminally responsible if his
unlawful act is the product of mental disease or mental defect”. Some
State added to their statutes this doctrine which is also known as
“irresistible impulse” recognizing some ill individuals may respond
correctly but may be unable to control their behavior (smith, et al,
2003).
 The Intellectual Quotient (IQ)
IQ Category Equivalent Capacity

1 to25 Idiot - A child from 1 to 3 years old

26 to 50 Imbecile - A child from 3 to 6 years old

51 to 75 Moron - A child from 6 to 8 years old

76 to 90 Dull-minded - A child from 9 to 11 years old

91 to 120 Normal (average) - A child from 11 to 14 years old

121 to 130 Superior - Above average capacity

131 to 140 Talented - High Development

140 Above Genius - Very High Development

Mental Retardation Base on IQ
• Mental retardation is a condition of limited ability in which an
individual has a low IQ, usually below 70 on a traditional intelligence
test, and has difficulty adapting to everyday life; he/she first exhibited
these characteristics during the so called development period – by age
18(santrock, 2000).
 Four Categories of Mental Retardation
IQ 50 to 70 - Mild - Able to care their selves; could finish
Retardation basic education, holds semi-skilled jobs,
can be married and serve as adequate
parents
IQ 35 to 49 - Moderate - May be trained to care their selves; reach
Retardation primary level of education, holds mental jobs
often sheltered workshops, difficulty in
maintaining social relationships, rarely marry.
IQ 20 to 34 - Severe - May learn sedimentary language and work
Retardation skills, unable to care for themselves.

IQ 20 Below - Profound - Spend their lives in institution that provides

Retardation custodial care, not capable of true interaction.
Both tables above present that individuals with intellectual
deficiency marked by IQ below 70 have difficulties performing in
everyday life (Landsman and Ramey, 1989). These difficulties
show in self care (such as eating and dressing), school work (such
as reading and arithmetic) and social relationship (such as
conversing and developing friendships), (Dizon, et. al., 1999)
 The following provisions of the Revised Penal Code Book 1 Article 12 exempt a person from

crime commission in consideration of intelligence .

• Any person who has committed a crime while the said person was
imbecile or insane during the commission.
• Any person above 9 years old but below 15 years old who has committed
a crime provided he acted without discernment. Thus those who acted
with discernment of the same age in the commission of crime are not
exempted but would serve to mitigate only the penalty.
• Any person having an age of 9 years old and below.
• Any person who acted under the compulsion of irresistible force.
 Note: R.A 9344 otherwise known as
Juvenile Justice and Welfare Act of 2006
• raised the criminal exemption from 9 to 15 years old. In addition, a
person of this age is totally exempted whether he/she acted with or
without discernment during the commission of crime.
• Fifteen (15) years old is within the stage of adolescence the transition
age which is characterized by curiosity, try-outs and identity crisis.
These circumstances expose them to risky and delinquent behavior. At
this age, children are not yet emotionally stable and their social
judgment has not yet matured.
 PSYCHOSIS AND NEUROSIS
• Psychosis
• Definition: Psychosis is a mental condition characterized by a
disconnection from reality. Individuals experiencing psychosis may
have difficulties distinguishing between what is real and what is not.
• Neurosis
• Definition: Neurosis is a term that historically referred to mental
disorders characterized by chronic distress but without a loss of touch
with reality. The term is less commonly used in contemporary
psychology and psychiatry, having been largely replaced by more
specific diagnostic categories.
 Neurosis
• Involution Reaction – demonstrates severe depression during the
involution period without previous history of psychosis.
• Affective Reaction – there is a presence of inappropriately exaggerated
mood and marked change in activity level with associated though disorder.
• Manic-Depressive Reaction – manic-depressive reaction shows cyclical
disturbances involving various combination of or alternation between
excitement and delusional optimism on the one hand and immobilizing,
delusional depression on the other.
• Schizophrenic Reaction – schizophrenic reactions are bizarre behavior,
disturbances of thought and reality testing; emotional withdrawal; and
varying levels of psychotic thinking and behavior (Beltran, 1996).
• Neurosis is a class of functional mental disorder involving distress but
neither delusion
• nor hallucinations, whereby behavior is not outside socially
acceptable norms.
• Neurosis is also known as “psychoneurosis or neurotic disorder”, and
thus those suffering from it care said to be neurotic. It involves
impaired social, intellectual and/or vocational functioning without
disorganization of personality or loss of contact with reality.
 Symptoms of Neurosis are the following:
• Anxiety Reaction – anxiety reaction has diffused fearfulness; tension and restlessness with
sometimes snowball into episodes of panic.
• Dissociative Reaction – is a massive repression or dissociation of certain aspect of experience or
memory varying in intensity from sleepwalking to amnesias and multiple personality
disturbances.
• Phobic Reaction – refers to intense irrational fear of specific objects or events that may have a
symbolic significance on the afflicted individual.
• Obsessive-Compulsive Reaction – Obsessive-compulsive reaction has repetitive, irrational
thoughts and/or actions (compulsions) which usually involve some symbolic effort at conflict
resolution.
• Depressive Reaction – refers to depression usually accompanied by guilt, feelings of inferiority and
anxiety (Beltran, 1996).
 CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR
Criminal Behavior refers to antisocial acts that place the actor at risk of becoming a focus of the attention of
criminal and juvenile justice professionals. It refers to acts that are injurious, acts prohibited under the law and
that render the actor subject to intervention by justice professionals (Lud-ayen, notes on Human Behavior,
2006).
According to Kalalang, 2001, Criminal Behavior refers to a behavior which is criminal in nature; a behavior
which violates a law. Thus, the moment a person violates the law, he has already committed criminal behavior.
Legal Definition of Criminal Behavior
Criminal Behavior refers to actions that are prohibited by the state and punished under the law.
Moral Definition of Criminal Behavior
Criminal Behavior refers to an action that may be rewarding to the actor but that inflicts pain or loss
to others. That is, criminal behavior is anti-social behavior.
 Origins of Criminal Behavior
The following are possible sources of criminal behavior:
1. Biological Factor – heredity as a factor implies that criminal acts are unavoidable, inevitable consequences of the bad seed or
bad blood. It emphasizes genetic predisposition toward antisocial and criminal conduct. The following are some studies and
theories related to biological causes of crime:
• Born Criminal by Cesare Lombroso.
• Physique and Crime by Cesare Lombroso’s Anthropology.
• Duke and Kalikkak Study by Richard Dugdale and Henry Goddard.
• Eysenck’s Theory of Personality and Crime.
2. Personality Disorder Factor – refers to an act that exhibits pervasive
pattern of disregard for and violation of the rights of others that begins
in childhood or early adolescence and continuous to adulthood such as
Anti-Social Personality Disorder.
3. Learning Factor – learning factors explains that criminal behavior is
learned primarily by observing or listening to people around us. The
following are related learning theories:
• Differential Association Theory by Edwin Sutherland.
• Imitation Theory by Gabriel Tarde.
• Identification Theory by Daniel Classer.
 The Terrible Triad for Serial Killers
The three characteristics of almost all serial killers during their childhood are:

• Bed Wetting – is the most intimate of these “triad” symptoms and is less likely to be willfully divulged. By
some estimates, 60% of multiple murderers wet their beds past adolescence. Kenneth Bianchi apparently
spent many a night marinating in urine-soaked sheets.
• Fire Starting (Fascination of Fire) – Otis Toole and Carl Panzram were two serial killers who started fires
during their childhood. Carl Panzram burned down the reformatory he was sent to. Toole set fire to a
neighbor’s house. Fire fascination (interest) was an early manifestation of their obsession (passion) with
destruction.
• Animal Torture – most serial killers, before moving to human victims, start with animals. Ed Kemper
killed neighborhood cats. A dog’s severed head was found on a stick in the wood near Jeffrey Dahmer’s
childhood home.
Childhood Characteristics of Serial Killer
• Majority of serial killers have a history of sexual and
physical abuse during their childhood.
• Half of the serial killers families, the biological father had
left before the child were 12 years old. In cases where the
father didn’t leave, he was domineering and abusive.
• Delinquent acts such as pyromania, theft and cruelty to
animals were present during the childhood of most serial
killers.
Two Types of Serial Killers Based on the Serial Killer’s Motive:

1. Act-focused
• This killer generally doesn’t kill for the psychological gratification of
the kill, making the act itself their primary emphasis. He usually kills
quickly, with little pomp and circumstance.
• Two Subtypes:
• Visionary – this killer usually receives a vision or hears a voice telling
him to kill. Sometimes the vision or voice comes from God or the devil,
both of which legitimate his violence.
• Missionary – this killer is on “missions” to eradicate a specific group of
people, such as prostitutes, white-collared bankers, etc.
2. Process-Focused
The majority of serial killers are process-focused.
They get off on the method of their
kill. They kill for the enjoyment of it and usually get
a perverse sexual thrill out of it, so therefore they
take their time and go very slowly. Hedonism
(pleasure seeking or self-indulgence) at it’s worse.
• Four Subtypes:
1. Gain - Murdering someone for profit or personal gain. Most females
usually fall into this category, like Lavinia Fisher, who would murder
her hotel guests and keep whatever belongings and cash they had.
You can read up on the 10 most infamous females here and almost
every one of them stood to get personal gain.
2. Thrill - Killing someone gives these people a rush or high. They
especially like to watch the lights to out in their victim’s eyes. It’s the
ultimate adrenaline (prepare the body to fight or flight) rush makes
them feel alive and euphoric. They typically don’t engage in sex
either before or after.
3. Power -,The pleasure comes from manipulating and dominating although the
argument could be made for this category to fall in with any of the above. Usually sex
is involved, but it’s not as important to this killer as to the lust killer. That’s confusing
some research found led that this is considered the “sociopath”.
4. Lust - Murder is associated with sexual pleasure in the minds of these killers. These
sick folk actually will have sex while in the process of killing or engage in necrophilia
after they have killed. Either or twisted, it seems that Lust Killers are the most
prevalent in the media and certain fiction genres (Read the case of Theodore Bundy).
Lust Killers basically have sexual gratification as their main motivation. They
almost always exhibit sadism (inflicting pain on others for their pleasure). They
usually are not opportunistic killers, but rather highly organized, with vast amounts of
planning and forethought put into their kills
 Four Phases of Lust Killers:
• Phase 1. Fantasy
• This killer act out the crime over and over in his mind, maybe with the use of pornographic material. His desire to kill is
manifested and this time period may last years before he progresses to phase two.
• Phase 2. The Hunt
• The killer might focus primarily on the “right” type of victim or he may focus on the “right’ type of location. Once he finds the
victim, he may stalk them for a long time, memorizing their schedule down to the minute. It could take many more years to
go through this phase, and cover 100s of miles.
• Phase 3. The Kill
• The victim is lured into the trap and then the killer makes real on his fantasy. Depending on how elaborate the kill ritual is,
this could take a while several days or longer, even. There will almost definitely be “overkill”, in that there could be extreme
torture, mutilation or dismemberment (the action cutting off a person’s or animal’s limbs). The killer might have sex with
the corpse, drink their blood, and eat body parts whatsoever they can do to preserve their moment of ecstasy however they
can. The killer might take a token of their kill or leave a calling card but not always.
• Phase 4. Post-Kill
• The killer will likely feel empty or dresses, because their inner torment was only relieved short term. More lives will have to
be taken in order to have temporary relief. It would be during this stage that a killer would write a confession to the police
or media. Unless caught, it is inevitable that he will kill again, starting the cycle back over (Campbell, 2013).
 PERSONALITY
• Personality refers to the sum total of typing ways of acting, thinking
and feeling that makes each person unique. People are not alike. There
are noticeable differences in the ways they act, think and feel. In other
words, different people have a variety of different personalities.
• Personality is a distinctive and relatively stable pattern of behavior,
thoughts, motives and emotions that characterizes an individual
throughout life (wade, et, al, 2003).
 Two type of Personality According to Carl Jung

• Introvert – an introvert is a person whose attention is focused inward.

He/she is usually shy, reserved and self-centered person.
• Extrovert – an extrovert is a person whose attention is directed
outward. He/she is a bold and outgoing person.
 Six (6) Approaches to Personality:
1. Psychoanalytic Approach – psychoanalytic approach argues that
people’s unconscious minds are largely responsible for important
differences in their behavior styles. Psychoanalytic theory emphasizes
childhood experiences as critically important in shaping adult
personality. It stresses the role of the unconscious in motivating human
actions. This theory was initiated by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939).
 The Structure of Personality
The structure of personality is made up of three major systems; the Id, the Ego and Super Ego. Behavior is
always the product of an inter action among these three systems; rarely does one system operate to the
exclusion of the other two.
• Id – Id allows us to get our basic needs met. Freud believed that the Id is based on the pleasure principle i.e.
it wants immediate satisfaction, with no consideration for the reality of the situation. Id refers to the selfish,
primitive, childish, pleasure-oriented part of the personality with no ability to delay gratification. Freud
called the Id the “true psychic reality” because it represents the inner world of subjective experience and
has no knowledge of objective reality.
• Ego – as the child interacts more with the world, the ego begins to develop. The ego’s is to meet the needs of
the Id, whilst taking into account the constraints of reality. The ego acknowledges that being impulsive or
selfish can sometimes hurt us, so the Id must be constrained (reality principle). Ego is the moderator
between the Id and superego which seeks compromises to pacify both. It can be viewed as our “sense of
time and place”.
• Superego (conscience of man) – the superego develops during the phallic stage as a result of the moral
constraints placed on us by our parents. It is generally believe that a strong superego serves to inhibit the
biological instincts of the Id (resulting in a high level of guilt), whereas a weak superego allows the Id more
expression resulting in a low level of guilt. Superego internalizes societal and parental standards of “good”
and “bad”, “right” and “wrong” behavior (Burger, 2000).
 Level of Awareness (Topographical Model by Freud)
• The conscious Level – it consists of whatever sensations and experience you are aware of at a
given moment of time.
• The preconscious Level – this domain is sometimes called “available memory” that
encompasses all experiences that are not conscious at the moment but which can easily be
retrieved into awareness either spontaneously or with a minimum of effort. Examples might
include memories of everything you did last Saturday night, all the towns you ever lived in,
your favorite books or an argument you had with a friend yesterday.
• The Unconscious Level – it is the deepest and major stratum of the human mind. It is the
storehouse for primitive instinctual drives plus emotion and memories that are so
threatening to the conscious mind that they have been repressed or unconsciously pushed
into the unconscious mind. Examples of material that might be found in your unconscious
include a forgotten trauma in childhood, hidden feelings of hostility toward a present and
repressed sexual desire of which you are unaware (Hjelle and Ziegler, 1992).
Trait Approach – Trait approach identifies where a
person might lie along continuum of various personality
characteristics. Trait theories attempt to learn and
explain the traits that make up personality, the
differences between people in terms of their personal
characteristics and how they relate to actual behavior.
 TRAIT
• Refers to the characteristics of an individual, describing a habitual
way of behaving, thinking and feeling (wade, et. Al, 2003).
 Kinds of Trait
• According to Allport (1961), the following are the different kinds of traits:

• Common Traits – these are personality traits that are shared by most members of a
particular culture.
• Individual Traits – these are personality traits that define a person’s unique individual
qualities.
• Cardinal Traits – these are personality traits that are so basic that all person activities
relate to it. It is a powerful and dominating behavioral predisposition that provides the
pivotal points in a person’s entire life. Allport said that only few people have cardinal traits.
• Secondary Traits – these are traits that are inconsistent or relatively superficial, less
generalized and far less enduring that affects our behaviors in specific circumstances.
 Lewis Goldberg’s Trait Theory
• Goldberg proposed a five-dimension personality model with a nickname of
“Big Five’ or “Five Factor Theory” and they are as follows:
• Extraversion – this dimension contrast such traits as sociable, outgoing,
talkative, assertive, persuasive, decisive and active with more introverted traits
such as withdrawal, quiet, passive, retiring, and reserved.
• Neuroticism – people high on neuroticism are prone to emotional instability.
They tend to experience negative emotions and to be moody, irritable, nervous
and prone to worry.
• Conscientiousness – this factor differentiates individuals who are
dependable, organized, reliable, responsible, thorough, hard-working and
preserving from those undependable, disorganized, impulsive, unreliable,
irresponsible, careless, negligent and lazy.
• Agreeableness – this factor is composed of a collection of traits that range
from compassion to antagonism towards others. A person high on
agreeableness would be a pleasant person, good-natured, warm,
sympathetic and cooperative.
• Openness to Experience – this factor contrast individuals who are
imaginative, curious, broad-minded and cultured with those who are
concrete-minded and practical and whose interest are narrow (Hogan, et
al., 1994 & King, 2008).
 Hans Eysenk’s Personality Trait
• Eysenk believed that many personalities are classified as introvert or
extrovert and emotionally stable or unstable.
• Extrovert – it refers to a person that is sociable, out-going and active.
• Introvert – it refers to a person that is withdrawn, quiet and
introspective.
• Emotionally Unstable – it is a trait that is being anxious, excitable and
easily disturbed.
Biological Approach – Biological approach points to inherited predispositions
and physiological to explain individual differences in personality. It is a
perspective that emphasizes the role of biological processes and heredity as
the key to understanding behavior.
Humanistic Approach – Humanistic approach identifies personal
responsibility and feeling of self-acceptance as the key causes of differences in
personality. This perspective focuses on how humans have evolved and
adapted behaviors required for survival against various environment
pressures over the long course of evolution.
Behavioral/Social Learning Approach – Behavioral/Social Learning
Approach explains consistent behavior patterns as the result of
conditioning and expectations. This emphasizes the role of environment
in shaping behavior.
Behavioral Personality Theory - It is a model of personality that
emphasizes learning and observable behavior. 6. Cognitive Approach –
cognitive approach looks at differences in the way people process
information to explain differences in behavior. This perspective
emphasizes the role of mental processes that underlie behavior (Burger,
2000).
 Social Learning Theory
• It is an explanation of personality that combines learning principles, cognition
and the effects of social relationships.
• Self-Reinforcement
• It is the praising or rewarding oneself for having made a particular response.
• Identification
• It is a feeling from which one is emotionally connected to a person and a way of
seeing oneself as himself or herself. The child admires adults who love and care
for him/her and this encourages imitation.
Freud’s Model of Personality Development
(Psychosexual Stages)
Oral Stage (0-18 Months)
• This is the first psychosexual stage in which the infant’s source of Id
gratification is the mouth. Infant gets pleasure from sucking and
swallowing. Later when he has teeth, infant enjoys the aggressive
pleasure of biting and chewing. A child who is frustrated at this stage
may develop an adult personality that is characterized by pessimism,
envy and suspicion. The over indulged child may develop to be
optimistic, gullible, and full of admiration for others.
Anal Stage (18 Months – 3 years)
• When parents decide to toilet train their children during anal stage, the children learn
how
• much control they can exert over others with anal sphincter muscles. Children can have
the immediate pleasure of expelling feces, but that may cause their parents to punish
them.
• This represents the conflict between the Id which derives pleasure from the expulsion of
• bodily wastes, and the super-ego which represents external pressure to control bodily
functions. If the parents are too lenient in this conflict, it will result in the formation of an
anal expulsive character of the child who is disorganized, reckless and defiant.
Conversely, a child may opt to retain feces, thereby spiting his parent and may develop an
anal retentive character which is neat, stingy (unwilling to give or spend) and obstinate
(stubborn).
Phallic Stage (3-6 years)
• Genitals become the primary source of pleasure. The child’s erotic pleasure focuses on
masturbation, that is, on self-manipulation of the genitals. He develops a sexual attraction to the
parent of the opposite sex; boys develop unconscious desires for their parent and become rivals
with their father for her affection.
• This reminiscent with Little Han’s case study, so the boys develop a fear that their father will
punish them for these feelings so decide to identify with him rather than fight him. As a result,
the boy develops masculine characteristics and represses his sexual feeling towards his mother.
• Oedipus complex – this refers to an instance where in boys build up a warm and loving
relationship with mothers (mommy’s boy).
• Electra complex – this refers to an occasion where in girls experience an intense emotional
attachment for their fathers (daddy’s girl).
• Note: The Oedipus complex is name for the king of Thebes who killed his father and married his
mother.
Latency Stage (6-11 years)
• Sexual interest is relatively inactive in this stage. Sexual energy is going through the
• process of sublimation and is being converted into interest in school work, riding bicycles
playing house and sports.
Genitals Stage (11 years on)
• This refers to the start of puberty and genital stage; there is renewed interest in obtaining
• sexual pleasure through the genitals. Masturbation often becomes frequent and leads to
orgasm for the first time. Sexual and romantic interests in others also become a central
motive.
• Interest how turns to heterosexual relationships. The lesser fixation the child has in earlier
• stages, the more chances of developing a “normal” personality, and thus develops healthy
meaningful relationships with those of the opposite sex (rathus, 2003.
 EMOTION
• Emotion refers to feelings affective responses as a result of physiological
arousal, thoughts and beliefs, subjective evaluation and bodily
expression. It is a state characterized by facial expressions, gestures,
postures and subjective feelings (Uriarte, 2009).
• Emotion is associated with mood, temperament, personality and
disposition. The English word “emotion” is derived from the French
word emouvoir. This is based on the Latin emovere, where e- (variant of
ex-) means “out” and movere means “move”. The related term
“motivation” is also derived from movere (santrock, 2000).
 Theories of Emotion are:
• James-Lange Theory by William James and Carl Lange – James-Lange theory
states that emotion results from physiological states triggered by stimuli in the
environment: Emotions occurs after physiological reactions. This theory and
its derivatives states that a changes situation leads to a changes bodily state. As
James says “the perception of bodily changes as they occur is the emotion.
• James further claims that “we feel sad because we cry, angry because we strike,
• afraid because we tremble and neither have we cried, strike, nor tremble
because we are sorry, angry or fearful, as the case may be”. The James-Lange
theory has now been all but abandoned by most scholars.
• Cannon-Bard Theory by Walter Cannon and Philip Bard – this
suggests that people feel emotions first and then act upon them. This
is a theory that emotion and physiological reactions occur
simultaneously. These actions include changes in muscular tension,
perspiration (process of sweating), etc. the theory was formulated
following the introduction of the James-Lange theory of emotion in
the late 1800s, which alternately suggested that emotion is the result
of one’s perception of their reaction or “bodily change”.
• Example: I see a man outside my window. I am afraid. I begin to
perspire.
• The Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion is based on the premise that one
reacts to a specific stimulus and experiences the corresponding
emotion simultaneously. Cannon and Bard posited that one is able to
react to a stimulus only after experiencing the related emotion and
experience.

Model for Cannon-Bard

Theory

• Stimulus (Bear) Emotion (fear) Reaction (Run

Away)
 Two Factor Theory
this theory was provided by Schachter & Singer, in which they posited
that emotion is the cognitive interpretation of a physiological response.
For many, this remains the best formulation of emotion. Most people
consider this to be the “common sense” theory to explain physiological
changes; their physiology changes as a result of their emotion (Santrock,
2000).
 CONFLICT
• Conflict is a stressful condition that occurs when a person must
choose between incompatible or contradictory alternatives. It is a
negative emotional state caused by an inability to choose between two
or more incompatible goals or impulsive (Uriarte, 2009).
• Conflict is the state in which two or more motives cannot be satisfied
they interfere with one another (Lahey, 2001).
 Types of Conflict
• Psychological Conflict (Internal Conflict) – psychological conflict could be going on inside the person and no
one would know. Freud would say unconscious Id battling superego and further claimed that our
personalities are always in conflict.
• Social Conflict – the different kinds of social conflict are:
• Interpersonal Conflict.
• Two individuals me against you.
• Inter-group struggles – us against them;
• Individual Opposing a Group – me against them, them against me;
• Intra-group Conflict – members of group all against each other on a task.
• Approach-Avoidance – conflict can be described as having features of approach and avoidance: approach-
approach; avoidance-avoidance; approach-avoidance. Approach speaks to things that we want while
Avoidance refers to things that we do not want.
 Kinds of Approach-Avoidance
Approach-Approach Conflict – in Approach-Approach conflict, the individual must choose between two positive goals of
approximately equal value. In this, two pleasing things are wanted but only one option should be chosen.
• Example: Choice between two colleges, two roommates or two ways of spending the summer.
• Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict – Avoidance-Avoidance conflict involves more obvious sources of stress. The individual
must choose between two or more negative outcomes.
• Examples: Study or do the dishes. I don’t want this and I don’t want that. A woman with an unwanted pregnancy may be
morally opposed by abortion.
Approach-Avoidance Conflict – Approach-Avoidance conflict exists when there is an attractive and unattractive part to both
sides. It arises when obtaining a positive goal necessitates a negative outcome as well.
• Example: Gina is beautiful but she is lazy. “I want this but I don’t want what this entails”.
• Another is the dilemma of the student who is offered a stolen copy of an important final exam. Cheating will bring guilt
and reduced self-esteem, but also a good grade.
Multiple-Approach-Avoidance Conflict – this refers to conflict with complex combinations of approach and avoidance
conflicts. It requires individual to choose between alternatives that contain both positive and negative consequences (Lahey,
2001).
 Functional vs. Dysfunctional Conflict
• Dysfunctional Conflict – there is dysfunctional conflict if conflict
disrupts, hinders job performances and upsets personal psychological
functioning.
• Functional Conflict – there is functional conflict if conflict is
responsive and innovative aiding in creativity and viability.
 DEPRESSION
• Depression is an illness that causes a person to feel sad and hopeless much of the time.
• It is different normal feelings of sadness, grief or low energy. Anyone can have depression.
It often runs in families. But it can also happen to someone who doesn’t have a family
history of depression. You can have depression one time or many times.
Causes of Depression
• Things that may trigger depression include:
• Major events that create stress, such as childbirth or a death in the family.
• Illness, such as arthritis, heart disease or cancer.
• Certain medicines, such as steroids or narcotics for pain relief.
• Drinking alcohol or using illegal drugs.
 Symptoms of Depression
• Think and speak more slowly than normal.
• Have trouble concentrating, remembering and making decisions.
• Have changes in their eating and sleeping habits.
• Lose interests in things they enjoyed before they were depressed.
• Have feelings of guilt and hopelessness, wondering if life is worth living.
• Think a lot about death or suicide.
• Complain about problems that don’t have a physical cause, such as headache
and stomachache (Zemla, 2012).
 Different Forms of Depression
• Major Depressive Disorder – this is also called major depression. It is
characterized by a combination of symptoms that interfere with a
person’s ability to work, sleep, study, eat and enjoy once-pleasurable
activities. Major depression is disabling and prevents a person from
functioning normally. An episode of major depression may occur only
once in a person’s lifetime, but more often, it recurs throughout a
person’s life.
Dysthymic Disorder - also refer to as “Dysthymia”. The symptoms do not occur for
more than two months at a time. Generally, this type of depression is described as
having persistent but less severe depressive symptoms than major depression.
Manifest nearly constant depressed mood for a least 2 years accompanied by a least
two or more of the following:

• Decrease or increase in eating.

• Difficulty sleeping or increase in sleeping.
• Low energy or fatigue.
• Low self-esteem.
• Difficulty concentrating or making decisions; and
• Feeling hopeless.
Psychotic Depression – this occurs
when a severe depressive illness is
accompanied by some form of
psychosis, such as a break with reality,
hallucinations and delusions.
Postpartum Depression – this is major depressive
episode that occurs after having a baby. A new mother
develops a major depressive episode within one month
after delivery. It is estimated that 10 to 15 percent of
women experience postpartum depression after giving
birth. In rare case, a woman may have a severe form of
depression called “postpartum psychosis”. She may act
strangely, see or hear things that aren’t there and be a
danger to herself and her baby.
Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) – this is characterized
by the onset of a depressive illness during the winter
months, when there is less natural sunlight. The
depression generally lifts during spring and summer.
SAD may be effectively treated with light therapy, but
nearly half of those with SAD do not respond to light
therapy alone. Antidepressant medication and
psychotherapy can reduce SAD symptoms, either alone
or in combination with light therapy.
Bipolar Disorder – this is also called manic-
depressive illness, is not as common as
major depression or dysthymia. Bipolar
disorder is characterized by cyclical mood
changes-from extreme highs (e.g., mania) to
extreme lows (e.g., depression).
Endogenous Depression – endogenous
means from within the body. This type
of depression is defined a feeling
depressed for no apparent reason.
Situational Depression or Reactive Depression (also
known as adjustment disorder with depresses mood)
– depressive symptoms develop in response to a
specific stressful situation or event (e.g. job loss,
relationship ending). These symptoms occur within 3
months of the stressor and last no longer than 6
months after the stressor (of its consequences) has
ended. Depression symptoms cause significant
distress or impairs usual functioning (e.g.
relationships, work, school) and do not meet the
criteria for major depressive disorder.
Agitated Depression – this kind of major
depressive disorder is characterized by agitation
such as physical and emotional restlessness,
irritability and insomnia, which is the opposite of
many depressed individuals who have low energy
and feel slowed down physically and mentally
inappropriate social behavior (Dryden-Edwards,
2003).
 How to Battle Depression
• Socializing – eating out, movies, ballgames with family or friends.
• Helping others in need – volunteer work, feeling the homeless, etc.
• Praying - works for all moods, especially depression (Aquino, 1999).
 STRESS
• Stress refers to the consequences of the failure of an organism - human or animal – to respond
appropriately to emotional or physical threats, whether actual or imagined. Stress is a form of
the Middle English destresse, derived via Old French from the Latin stringere, to draw tight.
The term stress was first employed in a biological context by the endocrinologist Hans Selye in
the 1930s.
• Stress can thought of as any event that strains or exceeds an individual’s ability to cope
(Lazarus, 1999).
• What is Stressor?
• Stressor is anything (physical or psychological) that produces stress (negative or positive). For
example, getting a promotion is appositive event, but may also produce a great deal of stress
with all the new responsibilities, work load, etc.
 Two Types of Stress

• Eustress (positive) – eustress is a word consisting of two parts. The prefix

derives from the Greek eu meaning either “well” or “good”. When attached to
the word “stress”, it literally means “good stress”.
• It is a stress that is healthy or gives one a feeling of fulfillment or other positive
• feelings. Eustress is aprocess of exploring potential gains. A stress that
enhances function (physical or mental), such as through strength training or
challenging work is considered eustress.
• Distress (Negative) – Distress is known as the negative stress. Persistent stress
that is not resolved through coping or adaptation, deemed distress, may lead
to anxiety or withdrawal (depression) behavior (Lazarus, 1974).
 Effects of Distress are:
a. Ineffectiveness at tasks f. Poor decision
making
b. Self-defeating behavior g. Dangerous action
c. Transitional suicidal behavior h. Accidents, and
d. Anxiety and fear i. Apathy and
cynicism.
e. Loss of interest and initiative
 Three Stages of Stress
• Alarm – alarm is the first stage. When the threat or stressor is identified or realized, the body’s
stress response is a state of alarm. During this stage adrenaline will be produced in order to bring
about the fight or fight response.
• Resistance – resistance is the second stage. If the stressor persist, it becomes necessary to attempt
some means of coping with the stress. Although the body begins to try adapt to the strains or
demands of the environment the body cannot keep this up indefinitely, so its resources are
gradually depleted.
• Exhaustion – exhaustion is the third and final stage in the General Arousal Syndrome (GAS) model.
At this point, all of the body’s resources are eventually depleted and the body is unable to maintain
normal function. The initial autonomic nervous system symptoms may reappear sweating and
raised of heart rate etc. (Selve, 1976 and Lahey, 2001).
• The result can manifest itself in obvious illness such as ulcers, depression, and
• diabetes, trouble with the digestive system or even cardiovascular problems, along with other
mental illnesses.
 Types of Short Term Stress
• Acute Time – acute time refers to limited stress that come on suddenly
(acute) and are over relatively quickly. Situations like public speaking
and doing math in your head fall into this category. These things may
come on without warning but are short in duration.
• Brief Naturalistic Stress – brief naturalistic stress is relatively short in
duration. Think of a classroom test or a final exam. These are stresses
that rise out of other things (like a course of study) and are over
quickly.
 Types of Long Stress
• Stressful Event Sequences – is a single event that starts from a chain of challenging
situations, for example, losing a job or surviving a natural disaster.
• Chronic Stress – chronic stress lacks a clear and point. Often they force people to
assume new roles or change their self-perception. Think of a refugee leaving their
native country or an injury leading to permanent disability. These are life-changing
events you rarely get to go back to the way things were.
• Distant Stress – distant stress may have been initiated in the past (like childhood
abuse or trauma resulting from combat experiences) but continue to affect the
immune system. Distant stressors have long lasting effects on emotional and mental
health (Scott, 2011).
FRUSTRATION
 Sources of Frustration
Frustration is a negative emotional state that occurs when one is prevented from
• reaching a goal. Frustration is an unpleasant state of tension and heightened sympathetic
activity, resulting from a blocked goal. Frustration is associated with motivation since we
won’t be frustrated if we were not motivated to achieve the goal. Frustration may be
external or personal.
External Frustration
• External frustration is a distress caused by outwardly perceivable conditions that impedes
progress towards a goal.
Personal Frustration
• Personal frustration is a distress caused by the individual’s inner characteristic’s that
impedes progress toward a goal (Uriarte, 2009).
• Physical Obstacles such as: drought, typhoons, flat tire, etc. that prevents
a person from doing his plans or fulfilling his wishes.
• Social Circumstances such as: obstacles through the restrictions imposed
by other people and customs and laws of social being.
• Personal Shortcoming such as: handicapped by diseases, blindness,
deafness or paralysis.
• Conflicts between Motives such as: wanting to leave college for a year to
try painting, but also wanting to please one’s parents by remaining in
school.
 The following are Common Responses to
Frustration:
• Aggression – it refers to any response made with the intent of harming some person
or objects. The intentional infliction may be a physical or psychological harm.
• Displaced Aggression – it refers to the redirecting of aggression to a target other
than the actual source of one’s frustration.
• Scapegoating – it refers to the act of blaming a person or group of people for
conditions not of their making.
• Escape – it is the act of reducing discomfort by leaving frustrating situation or by
psychologically withdrawal from them such as apathy (pretending not to care) or
illegal drug use (Uriarte, 2009).
 COPING MECHANISM vs DEFENSE
MECHANISM
• Coping Mechanisms are the sum total of ways in which people deal with minor to
• major stress and trauma. Some of these processes are unconsciousness ones, others are
learned behavior and still others are skills that individuals consciously master in order to
reduce stress or other intense emotions like depression. Not all ways of coping are equally
beneficial and some can actually be very detrimental.
• Defense Mechanisms refer to an individual’s way of reacting to frustration. These are
unconscious psychological strategies brought into play by various entities to scope with
reality and to maintain self-image. Healthy persons normally use different defenses
throughout life. According to Freud, defense mechanisms are methods that ego uses to avoid
recognizing ideas or emotions that may cause personal anxiety; it is the unrealistic strategies
used by the ego to discharge tension (Lahey, 2001 and Rathus, 2003).
 The Following is the Complete List of Coping
Mechanisms:
The Following is the Complete List of Coping Mechanisms:
1. Acting out 19. Passive aggression
2. Aim inhibition 20. Perfuming rituals
3. Altruism 21. Post-traumatic growth
4. Attack 22. Projection
5. Avoidance 23. Provocation
6. Compartmentalization 24. Rationalization
7. Compensation 25. Reaction Formation
8. Conversion 26. Regression
9. Denial 27. Repression
10. Displacement 28. Self-harming
11. Dissociation 29. Somatization
12. Emotionality 30. Sublimation
13. Fantasy 31. Substitution
14. Help-rejecting complaining 32. Suppression
15. Idealization 33. Symbolization
16. Identification 34. trivializing
17. Intellectualization 35. Undoing
18. Introjection 36. Positive coping
 DISORDERS
• This chapter presents the common disorders that are somehow
associated with abnormal persons such abnormalities are: anxiety
disorders, delusional disorders, mood disorders, personality
disorders, schizophrenia, sexual disorders, somatoform disorders and
dissociative disorders.
 ANXIETY DISORDER
• Anxiety is a psychological disorder that involves excessive
levels of negative emotions such as nervousness, tension, worry,
fright, and anxiety. It is a generalized feeling of apprehension, fear or
tension that may be associated with a particular object or situation or
may be free-floating, not associated with anything specific. Anxiety
can cause such distress that it interferes with a person’s ability to lead
a normal life.
 Differences between Anxiety and Fear
Anxiety is defined as an unpleasant emotional state for which the cause
is either not readily identified or perceived to be uncontrollable or
unavoidable, whereas, Fear is an emotional and physiological response
to a recognized external threat or a response to a real danger or threat.
 Symptoms of an Anxiety Disorder
a. Feelings of panic, fear and uneasiness.
b. Uncontrollable, obsessive thoughts.
c. Repeated thoughts or flashbacks of traumatic experiences.
d. Nightmares
e. Ritualistic behaviors, such as repeated hand washing.
f. Problems sleeping
g. Cold or sweaty hands and/or feet
h. Shortness of breath
i. Palpitations
j. An inability to be still and calm.
k. Dry mouth.
l. Numbness or tingling in the hands or feet.
m. Nausea
n. Muscle tension.
o. Dizziness
 Types of Anxiety Disorders
• Generalized Anxiety Disorder – this disorder involves excessive, unrealistic worry and
tension, even if there is little or nothing to provoke the anxiety. Accordingly, symptoms
include restlessness or feeling keyed up, difficulty concentrating, irritability, muscle tension
and jitteriness, deep disturbance and unwanted, intrusive worries.
• Obsessive-compulsive Disorder (OCD) – people with OCD are plagued by constant thoughts
or fears that cause them to perform certain rituals or routines. The disturbing thoughts are
called “obsessions” – are anxiety provoking thoughts that will not go away (ex. One may have
repetitive thoughts of killing a child, of becoming contaminated by a handshake or of having
unknowingly hurt someone in a traffic accident; and the rituals are called “compulsions” –
are irresistible urges to engage in behaviors (ex. A person with an unreasonable fear of
germs who constantly washes his or her hands, compulsive counting, touching and checking).
• Panic Disorder – this disorder keeps recurring attacks to a person of intense
fear or panic, often with feelings of impending doom of death. People with
this condition have feelings of terror that strike suddenly and repeatedly with
no warning. Other symptoms of a panic attack include sweating, chest pain,
palpitations (irregular heartbeats) and a feeling of choking, which may make
the person feel like he or she is having a heart attack or “going crazy”.
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) – PTSD is a condition that can develop
following a traumatic and/or terrifying event, such as a sexual or physical
assault, the unexpected death of a loved one, or a natural disaster. People
with PTSD often have lasting and frightening thoughts and memories of the
event and tend to be emotionally numb.
Specific Phobias – A specific Phobia is an intense fear of a specific object or
situation, such as snakes, heights or flying, Phobia is an exaggerated,
unrealistic fear of a specific situation, activity or object.

Social Anxiety Disorder – this is also called “social phobia”. It involves

overwhelming worry and self-consciousness about everyday situations.
The worry often centers on a fear of being judged by others or behaving in
a way that might cause embarrassment or lead to ridicule (wade, 2004).

The Vietnam War appears to have produced an unprecedented 500,000

veterans with at least mild problems of PTSD (santrock, 2003).
Three Types of Anxiety according to Freud

• Reality Anxiety – refers to fear of real dangers in the external world.

• Neurotic Anxiety – refers to fear that instincts will get out of control
and cause the person to do something for which he or she will be
punished.
• Moral Anxiety – is the fear of the conscience. People with well-
developed superegos tend to feel guilty when they do something that
is contrary to the moral code by which they have been raised (Hall and
Lindzey, 1978).
 DELUSIONAL DISORDER (false belief)
Delusional disorder is sometimes referred to as “paranoia”. Delusions
are false, sometimes even preposterous, beliefs that are not part of the
person’s culture. One might think he is Jesus Christ; another Napoleon
(King, 2008).
 Types of Delusional Disorder
• Persecutory Type (Delusion of Perception) – the person of this type
believes that he or she is being threatened or mistreated by others.
• Grandiose Type (Delusion of Grandeur) – victims of this disorder
believe that they are extraordinary important people or are possessed
with extraordinary power, knowledge or ability.
• Jealous Type – this delusion centers on the suspected unfaithfulness
of a spouse or sexual partner. This delusion is more common than
others.
• Erotomatic Type – this is a type of delusional disorder where a person has
an erotic delusion that he/she is loved by another person, especially by
someone famous or of higher status.
• Somatic Type – the false belief focuses on a delusional physical
abnormality or disorder. The somatic delusion relates to the patient’s body.
No matter what the mirror says, a person suffering from this type of
delusion believes his/her body is under attack. The attack can be from
bugs or bad odors or just the belief that there is something terribly wrong
with his/her body.
• Guilt Delusion – this person believes he/she has done something terribly
wrong. One extremely rare instance of this disease is called “folie a deux”
(Uriarte, 2009).
MOOD DISORDERS
 Symptoms of a Mood Disorder
Mood Disorders are disorders characterized by extreme and unwanted
disturbances in feeling or mood. These are major disturbances in one’s
condition of emotion, such as depression and mania. It is otherwise
known as “affective disorder” (DSM-IV-TR, 2000).
• Symptoms of a Mood Disorder
•
a. Sadness g. Dejection
b. Difficulty sleeping h. Exaggerated guilt
c. Fatigue i. Changes in appetite
d. Hopelessness j. Feelings of incompetence
e. Despair k. Loss of interest
f. Sense of inferiority l. Inability to function effectively
•
Types of Mood Disorder:
1. Bipolar Disorder – in bipolar disorder, formerly known as “manic depression”, there are
swings in mood from elation (extreme happiness) to depression (extreme sadness) with no
discernable external cause.
Two Phases of Bipolar
• Manic Phase – during the manic phase of the disorder, the patient may show excessive,
unwarranted excitement or silliness, carrying jokes too far. They may also show poor
judgment and recklessness and may be argumentative. Manic may speak rapidly, have
unrealistic ideas, and jump from subject to subject. They may not be able to sleep or sit still
for very long.
• Depressive Episode – the other side of the bipolar coin is the depressive episode. Bipolar
depressed patients often sleep more than usual and are lethargic. During bipolar depressive
episodes, a patient may also show irritability and withdrawal.
• Accordingly, (Wade, 2004). The depressed person speaks slowly and monotonously while the
manic person speaks rapidly, dramatically, often with many jokes and puns. The depressed
person has low self-esteem while the manic person has inflated self-esteem.
• Depressive Disorder – Depressive disorder is when the person experience extended,
unexplainable periods of sadness.
 Three Types of Depressive Disorder
• Major Depressive Disorder – a person suffering from major depressive
disorder is in depressed mood for most of the day, nearly every day or has
lost interest or pleasure in all, activities for a period of a least two weeks
• Single Episode – single depression is like major depression only it strikes
in one dramatic episode.
• Recurrent – recurrent depression is an extended pattern of depressed
episodes. Depressed episodes can include any of the features of major
depressive disorder (Santrock, 2003).
 PERSONALITY DISORDER
Personality disorders are chronic, maladaptive cognitive-behavioral
patterns that are thoroughly integrated into the individual’s personality
and that are troublesome to others or whose pleasure sources are either
harmful or illegal (Livesly, 2001).
• Types of Personality Disorder
• According to the diagnostic and statistical manual, a reference used to
clinically define mental illness, there are ten (10) different personality
disorders categorized into three main groupings or clusters
 Cluster A: Odd or Eccentric Behaviors
• Schizoid Personality Disorder (SPD) – Those with SPD may be perceived
by others a somber, aloof and often are referred to as “loners”.

• Manifestation:
• Social isolation and a lack of desire for close personal relationships.
• Prefers to be alone and seem withdrawal and emotionally detached.
• Seem indifferent to praise or criticism from other people.
Paranoid Personality Disorder (PPD) – although they are prone to unjustified angry or
aggressive outbursts when they perceive others as disloyal or deceitful, those with PPD
more often come across as emotionally “cold” or excessively serious.

Manifestation:
• They feel constant suspicion and distrust toward other people.
• They believe that others are against them and constantly look for evidence
to support their suspicions.
• They are hostile toward others are react angrily to perceived insults.
• Schizotypal Personality Disorder (SPD) – This disorder is characterized
both by a need for isolation as well as odd, outlandish or paranoid beliefs.
Some researchers suggest this disorder is less severe than schizophrenia.
• Manifestation:
• They engage in odd thinking, speech and behavior.
• They may ramble or use words and phrases in unusual ways.
• They may believe they have magical control over others.
• They feel very uncomfortable with close personal relationships and tend to be suspicion
of others.
 CLUSTER B: Dramatic, Emotional or Erratic Behaviors
Antisocial Personality Disorder (APD) – APD is characterized by lack of empathy or conscience, a difficulty
controlling impulses and manipulative behaviors. Antisocial behavior in people less than 18 years old is
called conduct disorder.
Manifestation:
• Act in a way that disregards the feelings and the rights of other people.
• Anti-social personalities often break the law.
• Use or exploit other people for their own gain.
• They may lie repeatedly, act impulsively and get into physical fights.
• They may mistreat their spouse, neglect or abuse their children and exploit their employees.
• They may even kill other people.
• People with this disorder are also sometimes called “sociopaths” or “psychopaths”.
• People with this disorder are at high risk for premature and violent death, injury,
• imprisonment, loss of employment, bankruptcy, alcoholism, drug dependence and failed personal
relationships.
Borderline Personality Disorder (BSD) – this mental illness interferes with an
individual’s ability to regulate emotion. Borderlines are highly sensitive to rejection and
fear of abandonment may result in frantic efforts to avoid left alone, such as suicide
threats and attempts.
Manifestation:
• They have intense instability, particularly in relationship with other.
• They make frantic efforts to avoid real imagined abandonment by others.
• They may experience minor problems as major crises.
• They express their anger, frustration and dismay through suicidal gestures, self-
mutilation and others self-destructive acts.
• They tend to have an unstable self-image or sense of self.
• Borderline personalities are at high risk for developing depression, alcoholism, drug
• dependence and bulimia; dissociate disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder.
Furthermore, 10 percent of people with this disorder commit suicide by the age of 30.
Narcissistic Personality Disorder (NPD) – NPD is characterized primarily
by grandiosity, need for admiration and lack of empathy. Narcissistic tend
to be extremely self-absorbed, intolerant of others perspectives,
insensitive to others needs and indifferent to the effect of their own
egocentric behavior.

Manifestation:
• They a grandiose sense of self-importance.
• They seek excessive admiration from others and fantasize about
unlimited success or power.
• They believe they are special, unique or superior to others. However,
they often have very fragile self-esteem.
Histrionic Personality Disorder (HPD) – individuals with this
personality disorders exhibit a pervasive pattern of excessive
emotionality and attempt to get attention in unusual ways, such as
bizarre appearance or speech.
Manifestation:
• They strive to be the center of attention.
• They act overtly flirtations or dress in ways that draw attention.
• They may also talk in dramatic or theatrical style and display
exaggerated emotional reactions.
CLUSTER C. Anxious, Fearful Behaviors
Dependent Personality Disorder (DPD) – people with dependent disorder
typically exhibits a pattern of needy and submissive behavior, and rely on
others to make decisions for them.

Manifestation:
• They have severe and disabling emotional dependency on others.
• They have difficulty in making decisions without a great deal of advice
and reassurance from other.
• They urgently seek out another relationship when a close relationship
ends.
• They feel uncomfortable by themselves.
Avoidant Personality Disorder (APD) – those with avoidant personalities
are often hypersensitive for rejection and unwilling to take social risks.
Avoidance displays a high level of social discomfort, timidity, fear of
criticism, avoidance of activities that involve interpersonal contact

Manifestations:
• They possess intense, anxious shyness.
• They are reluctant to interact with others unless they feel certain of being
liked.
• They fear being criticized and rejected.
• They often view themselves as socially inept and inferior to others.
Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder (OCPD) – individuals with OCPD, also
called “anankastic personality”, are so focused on order and perfection that their
lack of flexibility interferes with productivity and efficiency. They can also be
workaholics, preferring the control of working alone, as they are afraid that work
completed by others will not be done correctly.
Manifestation:
• They have a preoccupation with details, orderliness, perfection and control.
• They devote excessive amounts of time to work and productivity and fail to take
time for leisure activities and friendships.
• They tend to be rigid, formal, stubborn and serious.
• This disorder differs from obsessive-compulsive disorder, which often includes
more
• bizarre behavior and rituals (Lahey, 2001 and Snatrock, 2003).
 SCHIZOPHRENIA
• Schizophrenia is a group of disorders characterized by loss of contact
with reality, marked
• disturbances of thought and perception and bizarre behavior. At some
phase delusions or hallucinations almost always occur.
• Emil Kraepelin first identified the illness in 1896 when he
distinguished it from the mood
• disorders. He called it “dementia praecox”, which means a premature
deterioration of the brain. Emil’s thoughts were later disputed by many
psychiatrists. One of these was Eugene Bleuler, an eminent Swiss
psychiatrist, who in 1911 gave the term “schizophrenia”. He developed the
word by combining two Greek words “schizein” meaning “to split” and
“phren” meaning “mind”. This emphasized a splitting apart of the patient’s
affective and cognitive functioning, which are heavily affected by the
disease. Also schizophrenia came from the new Latin words “schizo”
meaning “split” and “phrenia”, meaning “mind” (King, 2008).
 Schizophrenic Hallucinations
Hallucinations can be broken down into the following categories:

• Tactile (touch) – people with schizophrenia often have the sensation that there are things (like
bugs or insects) crawling across their skin.
• Visual (sight) – this kind of hallucination causes the person to see things that are not really there.
• Auditory (hearing) – this is the most common type of hallucination. People with auditory
hallucinations hear voices and sounds that others cannot hear.
• Olfactory (smell) – the person experiencing an olfactory hallucination smells things (usually foul
smelling things) that others do not smell.
• Command (hearing) – when a voice commands the person to do something he/she would not
ordinarily do.
 Characteristics of Schizophrenia
• Disturbances of Thought and Attention – people suffering schizophrenia often
cannot think logically and as the result of this they cannot write a story, because
every word they write down might make sense, but are meaningless in relation to
each other. And they cannot keep their attention to the writing. The principal
disturbances in the schizophrenic’s thought a process is multiple delusions. This is
divided into two sub-categories:
• Persecutory Delusion – the schizophrenic believes that he/she is being talked
about, spied upon or his/her death being planned.
• Delusions of Reference – the schizophrenic give personal importance to completely
unrelated incidents, objects or people.
• Disturbances of Perception – during acute schizophrenic episodes, people say that the world appears
different to them, their bodies appear longer, colors seem more intense and they cannot recognize
themselves in a mirror.
• Disturbances of Affect – schizophrenic persons fail to show ‘normal’ emotions. This symptom is
easiest described as an excessive lack of correlation between what an individual is saying and what
emotion they are expressing. (e.g. recounting an experience of serious horror while chuckling or a
patient may smile while talking over tragic events).
• Withdrawal from Reality – during schizophrenic episodes, the individual becomes absorbed in his
inner thoughts and fantasies. The self-absorption may be so intense that the individual may not know
the month or day or the place where he is staying.
• Delusions and Hallucinations – in most cases it is accompanied by delusions. Delusions are inflexible
misleading beliefs. They appear as a result of exaggerations or distortions of reasoning, as well as
false interpretations of things and events.
• The most common are beliefs that other persons are trying to control his
• thoughts, he may become suspicious of friends (paranoid) and this is the reason why Robert Kennedy
was assassinated (Spoor, 1999).
Kinds of Schizophrenia
Paranoid Schizophrenia – if a person has paranoid schizophrenia, he/she:
• Is very suspicious of others.
• Has a great scheme of persecution at the root of the behavior.
• Have hallucinations and delusions which are also the symptoms of this type of
schizophrenia.
• Displays the psychotic symptoms.

Residual Schizophrenia – residual schizophrenia is usually:

• Expressed thought a person’s having no motivation of interest in everyday life.
• Advised when an individual has been through at least one episode of
schizophrenia (6 month) but then “recover”.
Disorganized Schizophrenia (hebephrenic schizophrenia) – this
schizophrenia is characterized by:
• Person is incoherent verbally and to his/her feeling.
• Expressing emotions that are not appropriate to the situations.
Catatonic Schizophrenia – a person diagnosed with catatonic schizophrenia is:
• Extremely withdrawn, negative, isolated and has obvious psychomotor disturbances.
• The subject may be almost immobile or exhibit agitated purposeless movement.
• Symptoms can include catatonic stupor and waxy flexibility.

Undifferentiated Schizophrenia – people with undifferentiated schizophrenia exhibit

the symptoms of more than one of the above mentioned types of schizophrenia, but
without a clear predominance of a particular set of diagnostic characteristics. This is
used when the patient’s symptoms clearly point to schizophrenia but are so clouded
that classification into the different types of schizophrenia is very difficult (Santrock,
2003).
Schizophrenia develops through any of the
following causes:
• Genetic Cause – a cause of schizophrenia usually lies in a person’s having immediate relatives with a history of schizophrenia or other psychiatric diseases (schizoaffective
disorder, bipolar disorder and depression). Some researchers consider schizophrenia to be highly heritable (estimate are a high as 70%).
• Environmental/Social Cause – there is considerable evidence indicating that stress may trigger episodes of schizophrenia psychosis. For example, emotionally turbulent
families and stressful life events have shown to be some of the risk factors for he relapses or triggers of schizophrenia episodes.
• The “Social drift hypothesis” suggests that people affected by schizophrenia may
• be less able to hold steady, demanding or high-paying jobs. As a result, low income and problems increases stress levels and leave such people susceptible to lapsing into a
schizophrenic episode.
• Prenatal Cause – casual factors are thought to initially come together in early neurodevelopment to increase the risk of later developing schizophrenia (Ex. Prenatal
exposure to infection). One curious finding is that people diagnosed with schizophrenia are some likely to have been born in winter or spring (at least in the northern
hemisphere).
• Substance Abuse Cause – in a recent study of people with schizophrenia and a substance abuse disorder, over a ten year period, “substantial proportions were above
cutoffs selected by dual diagnosis clients as indicators of recovery. “Example, illegal drugs, tobacco and the like” (Spoor, 1999).
• However, Eugene Bleuler, one of the pioneers in the diagnosis and study of
• schizophrenia, divided the disorder into two forms, they are:
• Reactive or Acute Schizophrenia – reactive schizophrenia is usually sudden and seems to be a reaction to some life crisis. Reactive schizophrenia is a more treatable form
of the illness than process or chronic schizophrenia.
• Process Schizophrenia/Chronic Schizophrenia – process schizophrenia is also referred to as “poor premorbid schizophrenia”, this type is characterized by lengthy periods
of its development with a gradual deterioration and exclusively negative symptoms. It doesn’t seem to be related to any major life change or negative event. Usually this
type of schizophrenia is associated with “loners” who are rejected by society, tend not to develop social skills and don’t excel out of high school (Carlson, 1990).
SEXUAL DISORDERS
Sexual Dysfunction are disorders related to a particular phase of the
sexual response cycle. Sexual disorders include problems of sexual
identity, sexual performance and sexual aim.

Major Categories of Sexual Disorder

• Sexual dysfunctions
• Paraphilia
• Gender identity disorders
 Category I. SEXUAL DYSFUNCTION
• Sexual dysfunction is a persistent or recurrent problem that causes
marked distress and interpersonal difficulty and that may involve any
some combination of the following:
• Sexual arousal or the pleasure associated with sex, or Orgasm
• It is a disturbance in any phase of the Human Sexual Response Cycle
(Lahey, 2001)
What is the Human Sexual Response
Cycle?
The Human Sexual Response Cycle is a four stage model of physiological responses during
sexual stimulation. The term was coined by William H> Masters and Virginia E. Johnson in
their 1966 book Human Sexual Response. The cycles are:
• Excitement Phase – it is also known as the “arousal phase” or “initial excitement phase”. It
is the first stage of the human response cycle. It occurs as the result of any erotic physical
or mental stimulation, such as kissing, petting or viewing erotic images that lead to sexual
arousal. It is characterized by an erection in males and a swelling of the clitoris and vaginal
lubrication in females.
• Plateau Phase – it is the period of sexual excitement prior to organism. The plateau phase is
the second phase of the sexual cycle, after the excitement phase with the following
manifestation such as: further increases in circulation and heart rate occur in both sexes,
sexual pleasure increases with increases stimulation, muscle tension increases further, fort
those who never achieve orgasm; this is the peak to sexual excitement. Both men and
women may also begin to vocalize involuntarily at this stage. Prolonged time in the plateau
phase without progression to the orgasmic phase may result in frustration if continued for
too long.
• Orgasmic Phase – orgasm is the conclusion of the plateau phase of the sexual response cycle, and is
experienced by both males and females. It is accompanied by quick cycles of muscle contraction in the lower
pelvic muscles, which surrounded both the anus and the primary sexual organs; women also experience
uterine and vaginal contractions; orgasms are often associated with other involuntary actions, including
vocalizations and muscular spasms with other areas of the body and a generally euphoric sensation; in men,
orgasm is usually associated with ejaculation. Each ejection is associated with a wave of sexual pleasure,
especially in the penis and loins; the first and second convulsions are usually the most intense in sensation and
produce the greatest quantity of semen. Thereafter, each contraction is associated with a diminishing volume of
semen and a milder wave of pleasure. Orgasms in females may also play a significant role in fertilization. The
muscular spasms are theorized to aid in the locomotion of sperm up the vaginal walls into the uterus.
Resolution Phase (Refractory Period) – the resolution phase occurs after orgasm and allows the muscles to relax,
blood pressure to drop and the body to slow down from its excited state. Men and women may or may not
experience a refractory period and further stimulation may cause a return to the plateau stage.
• This allows the possibility of multiple orgasms in both sexes. However, typically
• men enter this refractory period and some may find continued stimulation to be painful after the orgasmic
phase. Women may not have a similar refractory period and may be able to repeat the cycle almost
immediately (Uriarte, 2009).
Types of Sexual Dysfunction
• Dysfunctions of Sexual Desire (occurs during the excitement phase);
• Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder – it is marked by lack or no sexual drive or interest
in sexual activity. It is characterized by a persistent, upsetting loss of sexual desire.
• Sexual Aversion Disorder – it is characterized by a desire to avoid genital contact with a
sexual partner. It refers to persistent feelings of fear, anxiety or disgust about engaging
in sex.

• Dysfunctions of Sexual Arousal (occurs during the arousal/plateau phase);

• Male Erectile Disorder – it refers to the inability to maintain or achieve an erection
(previously called as “impotence”).
• Female Sexual Arousal Disorder – it refers to none responsiveness to erotic stimulation
both physically and emotionally (previously called as “frigidity”).
• Dysfunctions of Orgasm (occurs during the orgasmic phase):
• Premature Ejaculation – it is the unsatisfactory brief period between the beginning or sexual stimulation and
the occurrence of ejaculation.
• Male Orgasmic Disorder – it refers to the inability to ejaculate during sexual intercourse.
• Female Orgasmic Disorder – it refers to the difficulty in achieving orgasm, either manually or during sexual
intercourse.

• Sexual Pain Disorders

• Vaginismus - it is the involuntary muscle spasm at the entrance to the vagina that prevents penetration and
sexual intercourse.
• Dyspareunia – it refers to painful coitus that may have either an organic or psychological basis.
• Hyper Sexuality
• Nymphomania (or furor uterinus) – a female psychological disorder characterized by an overactive libido and
an obsession with sex (etymology of the word is “nymph”).
• Satyriasis – in males the disorder is called satyriasis and the etymology is “satyr” (at Health, Inc., 1996-2013).
Category II. PARAPHILIA
• Paraphilia (in Greek “para” means over and “philia means friendship)
is a rare mental health disorder term recently used to indicate sexual
arousal in response to sexual objects or situations that are not part of
societal normative arousal/activity patterns or which may interfere
with the capacity for reciprocal affectionate sexual activity.
• The disorder is characterized by a 6 month period of recurrent,
intense, sexually arousing fantasies or sexual urges involving a specific
act, depending on the paraphilia.
 Common forms Paraphilia are:
• Exhibitionism – this is also known as flashing, is behavior by a person
that involves the exposure of private parts of his/her body to another
person in a situation when they would not normally be exposed.
• When the term is used to refer to the psychological compulsion for
such exposure, it may be called “apodysophilia” or “a Lady Godiva
syndrome”.
 Types of Exposure
• Various types of behavior classified as exhibitionism includes:
• Flashing – it is the display of bare breasts and/or buttocks by a woman with an up-and-
down lifting of the shirt and/or bra or a person exposing and/or stroking his or her
genitals.
• Mooning - refers to the display of the bare buttocks while bending down by the pulling-
down of trousers and underwear. This act is note often done for the sake of humor and/or
mockery than for sexual excitement.
• Anasyrma – lifting up of the skirt when not wearing underwear, to expose genitals.
• Martymachlia – is a paraphilia which involves sexual attraction to having others watch the
execution of a sexual act.
• Fetishism – people with a fetish experience sexual urges and behavior which are associated
with non-living objects. For example, the object of the fetish could be an article of female
clothing, like female underwear. Usually the fetish begins in adolescence and tends to be
quite chronic into adult life. Sexual fetishism, first described as such by Sigmund Freud.
 Types of Fetishism

• Sexual Transvestic Fetishism (Transvestism) – like most paraphilia, “transveric fetishism” begins in
adolescence, usually around the onset of puberty. Most practitioners are male who are aroused by
wearing, fondling or seeing female clothing. Lingerie (bras, panties, girdles, corsets and slips),
stockings, shoes or boots may all be the fetishistic object.
• Foot Fetishism – it is a pronounced fetishistic sexual interest in human feet. It is also one of the most
common fetishistic interests among humans. A foot fetishist can be sexually aroused by viewing,
handling, licking, tickling, sniffing or kissing the feet and toes of another person or by having
another person doing the same to his/her own feet.
• Tickling Fetishism – a sexual related to gaining a specific sexual thrill from either tickling a sex
partner or being subjected to tickling themselves, usually to the point of helpless laughter. Often this
involves some form of restraint to prevent escape and/or accidentally hurting the tickler.
• Wet and Messy Fetish (WAM) – A form of sexual fetishism that has a person getting aroused by
substances applied on the body like mud, shaving foam, custard pudding, chocolate sauce, etc. It
could also involve wet clothes or any combination of the above.
 Major Categories of WAM
• Messy – the applying of largely opaque substances not usually used in this fashion. This includes food,
shaving cream and mud. A major, subdivision of food play involves striking people with cream pies much
like in silent comedy films. This category also includes wrestling in mud, oil or gelatin.
• Wet – the major varieties are of images of people in completely soaked clothing, usually involving full
clothing ensembles.
• Quicksand – images of people sinking in quicksand. In drawn images, the stage where female characters
sink up to their chests and their breast are up in response is a favorite.
• Underwater – also called “aquaphilia”. It involves images of people swimming or posing underwater. Some
subsets of this category are underwater fashion (models posing underwater, often while fully clothed),
scuba, rubber (people in skin-tight runner wetsuits), simulated drowning and underwater sex.
Gerontophilia (sexual preference for the elderly) – Gerontophilai describes a specific sexual inclination towards the
elderly and may at times explain the sadistic attacks made upon them.
Mysophilia – mysophilia is obtaining sexual arousal and gratification by filth or filthy surrounding. Put simply, this is
getting horny from smelling, chewing or rubbing against dirty underwear in Greek “mysos” means uncleanness.

Hypoxyphilia – is the desire to achieve an altered state of consciousness as an enhancement to the experience of orgasm.
In this disorder, the individual may use a drug such as nitrous oxide to produce
“hypoxia” or a “high” due to a lack of oxygen to the brain. Autoerotic asphyxiation is also associated with hypoxic states,
but it is classified as a form of sexual masochism.
Pygmalionism – it is sexual deviation whereby a person has sexual desire for statues.
Incendiarism – it is sexual deviation whereby a person derives sexual pleasure from setting fire.
Frotteurism (Frottage) – Frotteurism is the act of obtaining sexual arousal and gratification by rubbing one’s genitals
against others in public places or crowds or sexual urges are related to the touching or rubbing of their body against a
non-consenting, unfair woman.
Pedophilia – pedophilia is used to refer to child sexual abuse which comes from the Greek word “paidophilia”, “pais”
means “child” and “philia” means ‘friendship”. It is called “pedophilic behavior”.
• Masochism – sexual masochism involves acts in which a person derives sexual excitement from being humiliated, beaten,
bound or otherwise abused.
• Sadism – sadism is the act attaining sexual pleasure or gratification by the infliction of pain and suffering upon another
person. The word is derived from the same of the “Marquis de Sade”, a prolific French writer of sadistic novels.
• Voyeurism (peeping tom) – voyeurism came from the French voyeur meaning, “One who looks”. This is the act of reaching
sexual pleasure or gratification by watching or observing the subject from a distance or by stealth to observe the subject
with the use of peep-holes, two-way mirrors, hidden cameras, secret photography and other devices and strategies.
• Scatologia – it is also called “Coprolalia”, deviant sexual practice in which sexual pleasure is obtained through the
compulsive use of obscene language. The affected person commonly satisfies his desires through obscene telephone calls
(telephone scatologia), usually to strangers, related terms are “copropraxia”, performing obsence or forbidden gestures
and “coprographia” making obscene writing or drawings.
Necrophilia – is also called “thanatophilia” and “necrolagnia” is the sexual attraction to corpses. The
word is artificially derived from Ancient Greek “nekros” meas corpse or dead and “philia” means
friendship.
Coprophilia – coprophilia from Greek “kopros” means escrement and “filia” means liking, fondness,
also called “scatophilia or scat”, is the paraphilia involving sexual pleasure from feces.
Zoophilia - is the practice sex between humans and animals, also known as “bestiality/bestosexual”.
It came from the Greek “zoion” means animal and “philia means friendship or love, also known as
“zoosexuality’. A person who practices zoophilia is known as a “zoophile”.
Urophilia (Urolagnia) – a paraphilia of the fetishistic/talismanic type in which sexuoerotic arousal
and facilitation or attainment of orgasmis responsive to and being urinated upon and/or swallowing
urine in Greek “ouron”, means urine.
Category III: GENDER IDENTITY
DISORDER (Transsexualism)
• Gender identity disorder exists when a person experiences confusion, vagueness or
conflict in his/her feelings about his/her own sexual identity. It is condition in
which the individual feels trapped in a body of the wrong sex. A person who is
anatomically male feels that he is actually a woman who somehow was given the
wrong body is an example of this (Lahey, 2001).
• Category of Sexual Abnormalities
• Sexual Abnormalities as to the Choice of Sexual Partner:
• Heterosexual – this refers to a sexual desire towards the opposite sex. This is a
normal sexual behavior, socially and medically acceptable.
• Homosexual – this refers to a relationship or having a sexual desire towards
members of his/her own gender. The term homosexual can be applied to either a
man or woman but female homosexual are usually called “lesbians”.
 Kinds of Homosexual
• Overt – persons who are conscious of their homosexual cravings, and
who make no attempts to disguise their intention. They make
advances towards members of their own gender.
• Latent – persons who may or may not be aware of the tendency in that
direction but are inclined to repress the urge to give way to their
homosexual yearning.
• Infantosexual – this refers to a sexual desire towards an immature
person such as “pedophilia”.
• Bestosexual – this refers to a sexual gratification towards animals.
This is similar to “bestiality and zoophilia”
• Autosexual (self-gratification or masturbation”) – it is a form of “self-
abuse” or “solitary vice “ carried without the cooperation of another
person or the induction of a state of erection of the genital organs and
the achievement of orgasm by manual or mechanical stimulation.
 Types Masturbation
• Conscious Type – the person deliberately resorts to some mechanical means of producing sexual excitement with
or without orgasm.

• Ways of Masturbation:
• In Male
• By manual manipulation to the point of emission.
• Ejaculation produced by rubbing his sex organ against some part of the female body without the use of the hand.

• In Female
• Manual manipulation of clitoris.
• Introduction of penis-substitute.
• Unconscious Type – the release of sexual tension may come about via
the mechanism of nocturnal stimulation with or without emission,
which may also be as “masturbation equivalent”.
• Gerontophilia - this refers to sexual desire with elder person.
• Necrophilia – this refers to a sexual perversion characteristics by
erotic desire or actual sexual intercourse with a corpse.
• Incest – this refers to sexual relations between persons who, by
reason of blood relationship cannot legally marry.
 Sexual Abnormalities as to instinctual
Strength of Sexual Urges:
Over Sex
• Satyriasis – this refers to an excessive sexual desire of men to intercourse.
• Nymphomania – this refers to the strong sexual feeling of women. They are commonly called
“hot” or “fighter”.

Under Sex
• Sexual Anesthesia – this refers to the absence of sexual desire or arousal during sexual act in
woman.
• Dyspareunia – refers to the painful sexual act in women.
• Vaginismus – it refers to the painful spasm of the vagina during sexual act.
 Sexual Abnormalities as to Mode of Sexual
Expression or Way of Sexual Satisfaction:
• Oralism – this refers to the use of the mouth as a way of sexual gratification.
This includes any of the following:
• Fellatio (irrumation) – the female agent receives the penis of a man into her
mouth and by friction with the lips and tongue coupled with the act sucking the
sexual organ.
• Cunnilingus – the sexual gratification is attained by licking or sucking the
external female genitalia.
• Anilism (anilingus) – it is a form of sexual perversion wherein a person derives
excitement by licking the anus of another person of either sex.
• Sado-Masochism (algolagnia) - this refers to a painful or cruel act as a factor for
gratification. The example of this is “flagellation”, it is a sexual deviation
associated specifically with the act of whipping or being whipped.
• Sadism (active algolagnia) – this refers to a form of sexual perversion in which
the infliction of pain on another is necessary or sometimes the sole factor in
sexual enjoyment.
• Masochism (passive algolagnia) – this refers to the attainment of pain and
humiliation from the opposite sex as the primary factor for sexual gratification.

• Fetishism – it is form of sexual perversion wherein the real or fantasized

presence of an object or bodily part is necessary for sexual stimulation and/or
gratification.
 Sexual Abnormalities as to the Part of the
Body:
• Sodomy – this refers to as sexual act through anus of another human being.
• Uranism – this refers to the attainment of sexual gratification by fingering,
fondling with the breast, licking parts of the body, etc.
• Frottage (frotteurism) – it is a form of sexual gratification characterized by the
compulsive desire of a person to rub his sex organ against some parts of the
body of another.
• Partialism – it is a form of sexual deviation wherein a person has special
affinity to certain parts of the female body. Sexual libido may develop to the
breast, buttock, foot, legs, etc. of women,
 Sexual Abnormalities as to Visual
Stimulus:
• Voyeurism – it is a form of sexual perversion characterized by a
compulsion to peep to see persons undress or perform other personal
activities. The offender is sometimes called “peeping tom”. Usually,
after peeping, the person masturbates in excess.
• Mixoscopia (scoptophilia) – it refers to a perversion wherein sexual
pleasure is attained by watching couple undress or during their sex
intimacies.
 Sexual Abnormalities as to Number of Sex
Partners:
• Triolism – from French word “trios” which means “three”, it is a form of sexual
perversion in which three persons are participating in the sexual orgies. The
combination may consist of two and a woman or two women and a man.
• Troilist (a person) becomes aroused and gratified by the “sharing”.

• Pluralism – it is form of sexual deviation in which a group of person

participates in the sexual orgies. Two or more couples may perform sexual act
in a room and they may even agree to exchange partners for “variety sake”
during “sexual festival”.
 Sexual Abnormalities as to Sexual
Reversal:
• Transvertism – (sexo-esthetic inversion, psychical hermaphroditism or metamorphosis
sexualis paranoiac) – it is a form of deviation wherein a male individual derives pleasure
from wearing the female apparel. This condition is found sometimes in females who desire
to dress themselves in male attire. A female transvestite may imagine that she possesses a
penis.
• Transexualism – the dominant desire in some person to identify themselves with the
opposite sex as completely as possible to discard forever their anatomical sex refers to
transexualism.
• Intersexuality – it is a genetic defect wherein an individual show intermingling, in varying
degrees of the characteristics of both sexes including physical form,. Reproductive organs
and sexual behavior.
 Classification of Intersexuality:
• Gonadal Agenesis – the sex organ (testes or ovaries) have never
developed.
• Gonadal Dysgenesis – the externals sexual structures are present but at
puberty the testes or the ovaries fail to develop.
• True Hermaphroditism – a state of bisexuality, having both ovaries and
testicles. The nuclear sex is usually female. The character may be neutral
or whichever is dominant.
• Pseudohermaphrodite – the sex organ is anatomically of one sex but the
sex character is that of the opposite sex.
 SOMATOFORM DISORDERS
• Somatoform Disorder is a mental disorder characterized by physical
symptoms that mimic physical disease or injury for which there is no
identifiable physical cause. The symptoms that result from a somatoform
disorder are due to mental factors. In people who have somatoform disorder,
medical test results are either normal or don’t explain the person’s
symptoms. People who have this disorder may undergo several medical
evaluations and tests to be sure that they do not have an illness related to a
physical cause or central lesion. Patients with this disorder often become
very worried about their health because the doctors are unable to find a
cause for their health problems.
Six (6) Major Types of Somatoform
Disorder
• Conversion Disorder (Hysteria) – this is a condition where a patient
displays neurological symptoms such as numbness, paralysis or fits,
even though no neurological explanation is found and it is determined
that the symptoms are due to the patient’s psychological response to
stress.
 Symptoms are grouped as follows:
• Sensory Symptoms – these include anesthesia, excessive sensitivity to strong
stimulation (hyper anesthesia), loss of sense of pain (analgesia) and unusual
symptoms such as tingling or crawling sensations.
• Motor Symptoms – in motor symptoms, any of the body’s muscle groups may be
involved: arms, legs, vocal chords, included are tremors, tics (involuntary twitches),
and disorganized mobility or paralysis.
• Visceral Symptoms – examples, includes trouble swallowing, frequent belching, and
spells of coughing or vomiting all carried to an uncommon extreme. In both sensory
and motor symptoms, the areas affected may not correspond at all to the nerve
distribution in the area.
• Hypochondriasis – it is a somatoform disorder in which persons are preoccupied with their health
and are convinced that they have some serious disorder despite reassurance from doctors to the
contrary.
• Somatization Disorder – also “Briquet’s Disorder” or in antiquity, “hysteria” is apsychiatric diagnosis
applied to patients who chronically and persistently complain of varied physical symptoms that have
no identifiable physical origin.
• Pain Disorder – it is when a patient experiences chronic pain in one or more areas, and is thought to
be caused by psychological stress. The pain is often so severe that it disables the patient from proper
functioning. It can last as short as a few days, to as long as many years.
• Body Dysmorophic Disorder (BDD) – it is previously known as “Dysmorphophobia” and sometimes
referred to as “body dysmorphia” or “dysmorphic syndrome”. It is a (psychological) somatoform
disorder in which the affected person if excessively concerned about and preoccupied by a perceived
defect in his or her physical features (body image).
• Undifferentiated Somatoform Disorder – only one unexplained symptoms is required for at least 6
months. Included among these disorders are false pregnancy, psychogenic urinary retention and
mass psychogenic illness (so-called “mass hysteria”) (Sppor, 1999).
DISSOCIATIVE DISORDERS
• Dissociative disorders are disorders in which, under stress, one loses
the integration of consciousness, identity and memories of important
personal events. These include four recognized varieties:
• Psychogenic Amnesia – it is also known as “dissociative amnesia” is
the temporary or permanent loss of a part or all of the memory. When
this is due to extreme psychosocial stress, it is labeled psychogenic
amnesia. This stress is most often associated with catastrophic events.
 Four Sub-Categories of Psychogenic
Amnesia
• Localized Amnesia – this is most often an outcome of a particular event. The disease
renders the afflicted unable to recall the details of a usually traumatic event, such as a
violent incestuous rape. This is undoubtedly the most common type of amnesia.
• Selective Amnesia – as its name implies, this is similar to localized amnesia except that
the memory retained is very selective. Often a person can remember certain general
occurrences of the traumatic situation, but not the specific parts which make it so.
• Generalized and Continuous Amnesia – these less common forms of amnesia exists
when a person either forgets the details of his/her entire lifetime or as in the case of
continuous amnesia, he/she can’t recall the details prior to a certain point in time,
including the present.
• Psychogenic Fugue – it is also known as “Dissociative Fugue”. Psychogenic fugue is simply
the addition to generalized amnesia of a flight from family, problem or location. In highly
uncommon cases, the person may create an entirely new life (fugue means “flight”)
• Multiple Personality Disorder – it is also known as “Dissociative Identity Disorder”. It is
defined as the occurrence of two or more personalities within the same individual, each of
which during sometime in the person’s life is able to take control. This is not often a
mentally healthy thing when the personalities vie for control.
• Depersonalization Disorder – this is the continued presence of feelings that the person is
not himself/herself or that he/she can’t control his/her own actions. This is labeled as
disorder when it is recurrent and impairs social and occupational function (Santrock, 2000
and King, 2008)
 VICTIMOLOGY
• Victimology is the social scientific study of criminal victimization. As a sub-field of criminology (the social
scientific study of crime), it seeks to explain crime, but through more of a focus on the victims of crime. This
course will cover three general inter-related areas. One is research and theory on victimization. Here, you
will learn about rates of victimization and how they differ according to social categories (race, ethnicity, age,
class, gender, etc.) theories that explain differential victimization (of individuals and social categories), and
empirical tests of these theories. The second are is the consequences of victimization. Here, you will learn
mostly about the impact of criminal victimization upon individual’s mental and physical health, but also the
macro-social costs of victimization (including economic). The third area is practical responses to
victimization. Here, you will learn about the history and development of the “victims’ rights movement”, as
well as social policy and services aimed at restoring victims.
• To do well in this course, you will not only need to absorb information, but you must apply won creative,
critical thinking as well. (Danilo L. Tancangco)
• Victimology – is the study of the relationship between the victim and the perpetrator. Likewise it is the
“scientific study of physical, emotional, and financial harm people suffer because of illegal activities. It is the
study of the victim, including the offender and society. Furthermore, it is a social-structural way of viewing
crime and the law and the criminal.
• Victimology is the study of victimization. Including the relationships between victims and offenders,
the interactions between victims and the criminal justice system – that is, the police and courts and
corrections officials and the connections between victims and others social groups and institutions,
such as the media, businesses and social movements. Victimology is, however, not restricted to the
study of victims of crime alone but may include others forms of human rights violation. One that is
acted on and usually adversely affected by a force or agent (the schools are victims of the social
system): as a (1): one that is injured, destroyed or sacrificed under any of various conditions (a
victim or cancer), (a victim of the auto crash), (a murder victim) (2): one that is subjected to
oppression, hardship or mistreatment (a frequent victim of political attack).
• To understand this concept, first, we must understand what the terms victim and perpetrator mean.
The victim is a person who has been harmed by a perpetrator. A victim is a person who suffers direct
or threatened physical, emotional or financial harm as a result of an act by someone else, which is a
crime. A victim of misplaced confidence; a victim of swindler; and a victim of an optical illusion; a
person or animal sacrificed or regarded as sacrificed: war victims living creature sacrificed in
religious rites. A living being sacrificed to a deity or in the performance of a religious rite.
• A victim is a person who has been hurt or taken advantage of, which most of us try to avoid. Some
people hit others over the head with this word. Some seem to like being victimized; some almost
complete over who is the biggest victim, a person who suffers from a destructive or injurious action
or agency a victim of an automobile accident who experiences loss, injury or hardship for any
reason.
• Perpetrator – also known as the offender is an individual
who has committed the crime against the victim.
Additionally, he is an aggressor, assailant, criminal, evil
doer, felon, lawbreaker, malefactor, malfeasant, one
implicated in the commission of a crime, one who breaks
the law, one who commits a crime, pecan’s, sinner,
transgressor, violator, wrongdoer. Law enforcement
agencies use the study of victimology and the theories of
victimology to determine why the victim was targeted by
the offender.
Theory of Victimization
• Is this it presents the different theories of victimization. Victimization is the outcome of
deliberate action taken by a person or institution to exploit, oppress or harm another or to
destroy or illegally obtain another’s property or possessions. The Latin word victima means
“sacrificial animal”, but the term victim has evolved to include a variety of targets, including
oneself, another individual, a household, a business, the state or the environment. The act
committed by the offender is usually a violation of a criminal or civil statute but does not
necessarily have to violate a law; Harm can include psychological/emotional damage, physical
or sexual injury or economic loss.
• Victimology is the scientific study of victims. Victimologists focus on a range of victim-related
issues, including estimating the extent of different types of victimization, explaining why
victimization occurs to whom or what, the effects and consequences of victimization and
examining victims’ rights within the legal system. Different domains of victimization are also
of interest. Victimology is characterized as an interdisciplinary field – academics,
practitioners and advocates worldwide form the fields of criminology, psychology, social
work, sociology, nursing and medicine focus on victim’s plight.
The “victimization” in this report has two meaning, “an act that exploits of
victimizes someone” and “adversity resulting from being made a victim”.
Despite these two descriptions of the same word, both illustrate the problem
of victimization, especially in number as high as the U.S experiences each
year. As a method of counterfeiting the problem of crime and of dealing with
the numerous victims left in their wake, criminologist turn to the study of
victims and their relationship to the criminal act. While caring and
understanding the pain and anguish of the victim and their circle of social
influence is of essential, as is providing treatment and counseling:
criminologists now view the role of the victim in the criminal process as
imperative to understanding the crime itself. Studying and researching
victimology helps in gaining a better understanding of the victim as well as
the criminal and how the crime may have been precipitated.
Thank you
so much