INTRODUCTION

TO SOCIOLOGY
WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY
 What is sociology?
 Sociology has been defined differently by many scholars. However,
it may be taken to be the scientific study of human behaviour and
how the group influences it. It is the study of human behaviour or
human interaction in any society. Sociology is sometimes referred
to as the science of society or the study of human societies. Ritzer
(2015:5) defines sociology as “the systematic study and the ways
in which people are affected by, and affect, the social structures
and social processes that are associated with the groups,
organisations, cultures societies and the world in which they exist”.
Term Sociology derives from a combination of Latin and Greek words Socius and Logos respectively
Socius- society, association, togetherness companionship Logos-speak about/study of
First coined by Auguste Comte a pioneer of the discipline
A cluster of subfields that examine different dimensions of society
A study of society and social interaction
Individual and Society are inseparable
Primary focus of Sociology isInterdependence between society and the individual
Aims to empirically understand complexity of human life
WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY CONT
 Giddens (1993:08) defines sociology as the systematic study of human societies,
giving special emphasis to modern industrialized societies. Sociology studies
industrialised societies with an aim of understanding and predicting the future.
Sociology tries to understand the individual’s place in society, and society’s effect
on the individual.
 Sociology studies human social interactions at both micro and macro levels. The
discipline came into being in order to explain the social transformations and
upheavals that took place in Europe in the 19th century. Auguste Comte a French
philosopher coined the term sociology in 1838. In as much as sociology is said to
be a science, following Comtean positivism and the objectivity of a science, it is
also distinguished by its grounding in humanism through “the sociological
imagination”.
 However, it is important to note that generally, most
disciplines classified as social sciences all study human
behaviour, whether it be sociology, psychology, political
science, economics, human resource studies etc, it is
usually either the focus, method, theories or philosophical
underpinnings which differentiate one discipline from the
other. One just needs to master the discipline specific ones
for what they will be studying.


WHY STUDY SOCIOLOGY
 Sociology and other discipline
Sociology has a lot of similarities and differences with a lot of other disciplines, amongst those discussed
below:
.Sociology generally differs from journalism, which is often based on non- corroborated, and often sensationalised
stories which at times may even be personal opinions, whilst sociologists have to corroborate and verify their
information for it to be accepted as scientific evidence. Although journalism though is also broadening its scope
changing in the contemporary era to incorporate what is now called ‘investigative journalism’- an approach closer
to sociology and its emphasis on facts rather than opinions.
 Sociology is very closely related to but differs from anthropology. Cultural anthropologists for example largely

study different or “other” societies, with their main thrust being on lengthy studies of cultures to produce
qualitative accounts, whilst sociologists may do relatively shorter studies, focusing mainly on modern
societies, but also looking at their cultures.
 The two disciplines however, borrow from each other and share certain theorists e.g. Karl Marx. In a way,

anthropology helps sociologists in understanding the different forms of human social life that exists.
 Sociology will be on how individuals and societies are affected by these matters, and vice versa.

Why study sociology?

-Helps us to understand how human behaviour is shaped by the

group/society, and how individuals may also to some extent affect societies.
Sociologists are concerned with the relationship/continuum between the
micro (small scale, face to face) and macro (groups, organisations, culture)
phenomena.
-Sociology offers a sociological imagination. The term sociological imagination
was first used by sociologist CW Mills (1959). The sociological imagination is
the ability to situate personal troubles and life trajectories within an informed
framework of larger social processes. Ritzer (2015:17) defines the sociological
imagination as a way of linking private troubles with public issues. It is a
distinctive way of looking at data and reflecting on the world around them.
Early thinkers such as Marx and Weber tried to understand the larger
processes that were affecting their own personal experiences of the world.
 An example that distinguishes private troubles from public issues
is given by Mills (1959:9) in Matthewman et al (2013: xiii) is that
“when in a city of 100 000 only one man is unemployed, that is
his personal trouble, and for its relief we properly look to the
character of the man, his skills and immediate opportunities. But
when in a nation of 50 million employees, 15 million men are
unemployed, that is an issue and we may not hope to find its
solution within the range of opportunities open to any one
individual”. Therefore the sociological imagination helps us to
understand where personal troubles end and public issues begin
and to be able to offer solutions to these.
  Prediction in order to control – sociological research helps us
predict how the future will be like and thus gives us the
“possible” ability to control the future.
 Helps by providing a means of increasing our cultural
sensitivities. In terms of social policy, it helps by enabling policy
makers make suitable and culturally appropriate societies.
 In terms of human resource management sociology helps
managers to be able to formulate appropriate policies that are
acceptable within certain cultures.

The Sociological Imagination
 Many individuals experience one or more social problems personally. For example,
many people are poor and unemployed, many are in poor health, and many have
family problems, drink too much alcohol, or commit crime. When we hear about
these individuals, it is easy to think that their problems are theirs alone, and that
they and other individuals with the same problems are entirely to blame for their
difficulties.

 Sociology takes a different approach, as it stresses that individual problems are
often rooted in problems stemming from aspects of society itself. This key insight
informed C. Wright Mills’s (1959) (Mills, 1959) classic distinction between personal
troubles and public issues. Personal troubles refer to a problem affecting
individuals that the affected individual, as well as other members of society,
typically blame on the individual’s own personal and moral failings.
Sociological Imagination cont
 Coined by C Wright Mills -Ability to think sociologically
 Also known as Sociological lens or Sociological perspective
 Quality of mind that provides an understanding of ourselves within the context of the larger
society
 Helps us see relationship between ourselves and the society we live in
 How individuals understand their own and others’ pasts in relation to history and social
structure
 Intersection btwn biography & history/Interplay of self &world
 Struggles/troubles of milieu(particular place or situation in life) connected to the issue of
public social structure (what is happening at level of society as a whole)
 SI enables Sociologists to examine what influences behaviour, attitudes and culture
 We are products of society but also history makers who help produce and change society by
our actions
 By using systematic and scientific methods in SI personal biases and pre-conceived ideas do
not interfere with findings
 Examples include such different problems as eating disorders, divorce, and unemployment. Public
issues, whose source lies in the social structure and culture of a society, refer to social problems
affecting many individuals. Problems in society thus help account for problems that individuals
experience. Mills felt that many problems ordinarily considered private troubles are best understood
as public issues, and he coined the term sociological imagination to refer to the ability to appreciate
the structural basis for individual problems.

 To illustrate Mills’s viewpoint, let’s use our sociological imaginations to understand some
contemporary social problems. We will start with unemployment, which Mills himself discussed. If
only a few people were unemployed, Mills wrote, we could reasonably explain their unemployment
by saying they were lazy, lacked good work habits, and so forth. If so, their unemployment would
be their own personal trouble. But when millions of people are out of work, unemployment is best
understood as a public issue because, as Mills (Mills, 1959) put it, “the very structure of
opportunities has collapsed. Both the correct statement of the problem and the range of possible
solutions require us to consider the economic and political institutions of the society, and not
merely the personal situation and character of a scatter of individuals.”

 When only a few people are out of work, it is fair to say that their unemployment is
their personal trouble. However, when millions of people are out of work, as has
been true since the economic downturn began in 2008, this massive unemployment
is more accurately viewed as a public issue. As such, its causes lie not in the
unemployed individuals but rather in our society’s economic and social systems.

 The high US unemployment rate stemming from the severe economic downturn
that began in 2008 provides a telling example of the point Mills was making.
Millions of people lost their jobs through no fault of their own. While some
individuals are undoubtedly unemployed because they are lazy or lack good work
habits, a more structural explanation focusing on lack of opportunity is needed to
explain why so many people were out of work. If so, unemployment is best
understood as a public issue rather than a personal trouble.

 Another social problem is eating disorders. We usually consider a person’s eating disorder to be a personal
trouble that stems from a lack of control, low self-esteem, or another personal problem. This explanation
may be OK as far as it goes, but it does not help us understand why so many people have the personal
problems that lead to eating disorders. Perhaps more important, this belief also neglects the larger social
and cultural forces that help explain such disorders. For example, most Americans with eating disorders
are women, not men. This gender difference forces us to ask what it is about being a woman in American
society that makes eating disorders so much more common. To begin to answer this question, we need to
look to the standard of beauty for women that emphasizes a slender body (Boyd, et. al., 2011). If this
cultural standard did not exist, far fewer American women would suffer from eating disorders than do now.
Because it does exist, even if every girl and woman with an eating disorder were cured, others would take
their places unless we could somehow change this standard. Viewed in this way, eating disorders are best
understood as a public issue, not just as a personal trouble.

 Picking up on Mills’s insights, William Ryan (1976) (Ryan, 1976) pointed out that Americans typically think
that social problems such as poverty and unemployment stem from personal failings of the people
experiencing these problems, not from structural problems in the larger society. Using Mills’s terms,
Americans tend to think of social problems as personal troubles rather than public issues.

 Basic concepts in sociology
 Culture
 According to Tylor (1871 in Cheater 1989:103-123) culture is “that complex whole which
includes knowledge, beliefs, morals, laws, customs and any other capabilities and habits
acquired by man as a member of society.” This definition can be criticized for being vague
because it has been applied to a wide range of phenomena (It is too broad).
 Giddens (1993:08) argues that culture is the way of life of the members of a society or
groups within a society. Culture differs from society in that while culture looks at the way
of life of a group, society refers to the system of interrelationships connecting individuals
within a group. However the difference is not really great and the two are connected.
 Keesing (1974:80) defines culture as a set of shared meanings and values. Thus culture
can be viewed as a cognitive system where it consists of standards for deciding what to
do about it and for deciding how to go about doing it
 Popenoe (1994) defines culture as shared values, language, knowledge and material
objects. People learn culture over time.
 Culture as a resource – culture can be liked to a super market where people pick and choose the
things they want. Thus people pick and choose the norms and values to use in everyday life. Men
and women use several aspects of culture either to attack others or defend themselves.
 Culture as an instrument of domination
 (Bourdieu 1984) maintains that culture plays a major role in maintaining social inequality. Based
no their social origins, individuals acquire capacities for interpreting and using culture codes that
affect their opportunities to maintain or change their social position. In a patriarchal situation, it is
culture that upholds the position of men over women. Cheater (1986:06) goes on to argue that
culture can be viewed as a set of ideological precepts that can be mobilized into socio-political
interacts.
 Culture as a way of life
 O’Connor and Downing (1995:03) highlight that culture is the essence of a people’s way of life,
e.g. how they dress, their marriage system, religion etc
 Culture industries
 These include newspapers, books, art, music who maintain/perpetuate a people’s way of life.

 The 3 symbols that constitute culture
 Peterson (1979:137) argues that norms, values and beliefs are the symbols that constitute culture:
 Values – these are choice statements that rank behaviour or goals. They are abstract ideals held by members of a
given society. Values can also be defined as ideas shared by people about what is desirable, acceptable and right.
 Norms – these are more specific than values. They refer to the “dos” and “don’ts” of social life. These are the
rules governing social life which people are expected to observe. Norms can be formal/ written down or informal.
Three types of norms are folkways, mores and taboos. Folkways are norms of little strength that may be easily
broken without any formal sanctions. Mores (pronounced MO-RA-YS) are strong norms whose violation leads to
formal punishment. Taboos are the strongest proscriptive norms considered sacred governing what one must not
do. They spell out acts considered unimaginable and unthinkable. Violation of taboos has serious consequences.
 Beliefs – these are existential statements about how the world operates that often serve to justify norms and
values. Popenoe (1994) defines them as any statement that purports to describe some aspect of collective reality.
Beliefs are what people hold to be true or have confidence/faith in. They help us construct our reality and matters
of spirituality and cosmology.
 Culture therefore refers to the norms, values, beliefs, and material goods created by people in society. Norms can
be divided mores, folkways and taboos.
 Subculture- a distinctive culture of a small group existing within mainstream culture
 Counterculture- a culture of a group that directly challenges mainstream culture
 What are sanctions?-rewards and punishment for particular conduct.
So sanctions can be positive and negative.
 What is a social institution? - A relatively stable cluster of social
structures that is intended to meet the basic needs of societies.
Examples include families, schools, and churches.
 What is society? – Ritzer (2015:7) defines it as a complex pattern of
social relationships that is bounded in space and persists over time”.
Lenski and Lenski (1995) define a society as people who interact in a
defined territory and share culture.


Development or evolution of
Society
 Lenski and Lenski’s (1995) theory of the evolution of society
 These authors differentiate societies by forms of technology. Societies with simple
technology (e.g. hunter gatherers) have little control over the nature and therefore
can support a few number of people. Societies with complex technology are not
better but can support a large number of people who live highly specialised lives.
They described 5 types of societies.
 Hunting and gathering societies
 These are the simplest forms, using simple tools to hunt animals and gather fruits and
vegetation. They consist of small bands of a few dozen people who are nomadic,
moving on as they deplete vegetation in an area or follow migratory animals. They
rarely form permanent settlement. Everyone’s life is much the same and is focused
on getting the next meal. They only have spiritual leaders. Women are the primary
providers of food. The societies existed around 12 000 years ago. Examples include
the Pygmies of central Africa and Bushmen of southern Western Africa.
 Horticultural and pastoral societies -people discovered the use of hand tools and
started raising crops. They also engaged in pastoralism (domestication of animals)
e.g. the Tuaregs. These groups remain nomadic but had more populations than the
hunter gatherers. Social inequality emerged as societies engaged in slavery,
protracted warfare and even cannibalism. Such societies existed between 10-12
000 years ago.
 Agrarian societies These societies had discovered agriculture. They engaged in
large cultivation using ploughs harnessed by animals or more powerful machines.
There are high levels of social inequality compared to the previous two, landowners
are more important than everyone else. Agriculture propels men into a position of
social dominance.
 Industrial societies These started around the 1750s. They are based on
industrialisation (the production of goods using advanced sources of energy to
drive large machinery. Industrial societies emerged as a result of the industrial
revolution, with the building of railway lines, discovery of machines and creation of
factories. They are characterised by occupational specialisation, loss of traditional
values and kinship ties, changes in family organisation, (such as divorce and single
parenting) and huge populations concentrated in cities.
 What is socialisation?
 When children are born into society they are socialised into the way of life of that
group. Socialisation is a process of inculcating societies’ norms and values into an
individual. Socialisation takes place in two levels: primary and secondary.
 Primary socialisation is a process whereby an infant/child acquires the skills/ways
of life of a society into which he/she is born. It mainly takes place at home and is
done by the parents or family of the young child.
 Secondary socialisation happens in schools, workplaces, universities, etc. where
individuals continually learn to adjust to the demands of society.
 Socialisation is a life long process that starts from birth and end in the grave or
death
 Roles
 As an individual is socialised into society’s norms and values, he/she learns to take a role. Roles are
socially defined expectations that a person in a given status or social position follows. It is the duty
one carries out whether at home, in the workplace or at school. For example, my role is to lecture
and yours is to be attentive students. Roles are allocated to individuals by society. Where these
roles become too many for an individual they can cause role strain/role conflict/role confusion. For
example, where one is a student, father, brother, worker, husband, boyfriend, son and an uncle.

 Status
 This refers to a position that one occupies in the society. It is linked to roles in that for one to
perform a certain role they have to occupy a certain social position. For example, to be a teacher
you have to occupy a certain position. It can either be achieved or ascribed. An achieved status is
not that an individual puts some effort or strives to achieve, e.g. being a teacher, nurse, doctor etc.
One is not born in that position. The ascribed status does not require any effort form the individual.
One finds herself/ himself in that position, mostly by birth. For example being a prince, chief,
woman, man.
SOCIOLOGY VS OTHER SCIENCES
 Social science is the discipline that uses scientific methods to examine the
social world
 Natural science examines the physical world
 Differences btwn Sociology and other S/sciences
 Sociology’s territory overlaps with that of other social sciences even while
maintaining its own unique approach
 Sociology more interested in societies at all levels of development Anthropology
concentrates on traditional societies mostly (this is changing though)
 Sociology looks at a whole range of social institutions unlike economics
&politics focused on a single one
 Sociology looks at the indvidual in relation to external social forces psychology
specialises in internal states of mind
 Sociology is different from history, which looks at the past, although history is still important in
the shaping of sociology and human behaviour as well.

 While psychology focuses on mental processes and how they influence human behaviour,
sociology looks at how structures and cultures influence human behaviour.

 Economics is referred to as the study of how societies use scarce resources to produce
valuable commodities and distribute them among different people. Sociology on the other
hand does no narrow down its focus just to economic interaction, but takes a wider focus on
the impact of economics on the society and the individual.

 Philosophy on the other hand is referred to as the study of general and fundamental problems
concerning matters such as existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. Whilst
al these are found in the subject matter of sociology, which is the society, the focus in s
SOCIOLOGY VS OTHER SCIENCES
 LEVELS OF ANALYSIS IN
SOCIOLOGY
 Micro-Sociology
Micro-sociology focuses on studying human social interactions on a small scale, such as the role
of women, the nature of family, and immigration. It looks at individuals and how they interact
with each other and is primarily concerned with how individuals or small groups interact face-to-
face. Micro-level studies examine individual thought, action, and interaction.
 Micro-sociologists tend to ask more focused questions that explore the lives of smaller groups of
people. One-on-one interviews, ethnographic observation, and focus groups are more commonly
used in micro-sociological research. These methods of study can help to make connections
between historical trends and the way people experience their everyday lives. Some micro-
sociologists choose to insert themselves into the communities they study and become part of
the lives of their participants. Living among the people they are studying enables the micro-
sociologists to see how the participants live, how they interact, how they communicate, and how
social systems affect the lives and experiences of people who live within them.
 Macro-Sociology
The interest in macro-sociology is as old as the discipline of sociology itself. Macro-sociology
focuses on studying human social interactions and social phenomena on a large scale. Social
structure is found in both large groups of people and in their interactions. Macro-level studies
target social structures and the influences that organize as well as separate people into
political, social or religious groups and organizations, ethnic populations, and communities.
Social class is an example of social structure, as is the relationships between social class and
the economy. Therefore, the study of social class and the study of the economy are examples
of macro-sociology.
 At the highest level, macro-sociology may cover all human society and history. It can deal
with a wide range of societal issues, such as war, the suffering of Third World nations,
poverty, and the environment. It can also focus on the rise and decline of civilizations, the
origins and evolution of modern nation-states, social revolutions, and the origins of social,
political, economic, and cultural changes.
 Meso-Sociology
Meso-sociology is the study of intermediate (meso) social structure, such
as income, age, gender, race, ethnicity, organizations and geographical
communities. This area of sociology lies between focusing on large-scale
macro forces such as the economy and everyday micro human social
interactions such as family dynamics. It typically involves a population size
that falls between the micro- and macro-levels, such as a community or an
organization. For example, meso-level areas of social control include
middle-level organizations, such as prisons, mental hospitals, and
rehabilitation centres. Communities also are instruments of social control,
such as police forces.
WHY STUDY SOCIOLOGY
 Marvasti (2004)-Sociology reveals ‘the strange in the familiar’
 Helps us see the general in the particular
 To better understand the connection between our lives and the society in which we live
 Appreciate importance of diversity for understanding social interaction and human
society
 Promotes critical thinking-involves objectively assessing ideas statements and
information
 Defining problems looking below the surface of commonly held ideas
 Questioning assumptions& stereotypes, logically analyzing evidence recognizing biases
and avoiding knee-jerk reactions
 Sociology is about asking questions and questioning answers
 To proffer solutions to the problems that society encounters
 Humans are essentially social beings & Sociology teaches us to be open-minded and
tolerant of values& thoughts that may be different from our own
WHY IS SOCIOLOGY IMPORTANT FOR
SOCIAL WORK STUDENTS
 Sociology offers some important social theories, which provide
explanations and critiques of human behaviour, social actions and
interactions as well as the institutions and the structures of society.
 The fact that social work is concerned with social change and problem
solving is precisely why sociology is important to social work. Nowadays
social workers are expected to write their reports in a coherent way,
justifying it using theory and research.
 Sociology identifies problems and social work provides solutions to the
problems ie helps in solving problems found in society
 Sociology highly theoretical whilst social work is highly practical
 Sociology helps students to develop critical and analytical skills needed to
study society, identifying problems etc
THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF
SOCIOLOGY
 The discipline of sociology can be said to have
developed as a result of the following factors:
 The enlightenment thinkers
 Industrialization
 Urbanization
 Growth of communism
 The French Revolution
 The influence of Auguste Comte
 The enlightenment thinkers: Philosophical foundations
 The general arguments pursued by enlightenment thinkers were:
 Belief in empiricism – they believed that everything must be empirical, that is, proved
through experiments or other methods. It is through empiricism that knowledge is
increased. If one said the earth is spherical then one had to prove their claim. Empiricism
was an attempt to depart from explaining things using the supernatural “eternal verities”
to explain social reality using reason and science.
 Rejection of Papal infallibility – they rejected the view that the pope is infallible/does not
sin and argued that everyone responsible for his/her actions. They also rejected the point
that the new pope was appointed by God and argued that people had the right elect
presidents into office, that is, to remove and install governments into office.
 Social and moral progress through science.
 Individualism- seen as the starting point of all knowledge.
 The search for general laws and freedom.
 Enlightenment writings demonstrate a shift away from the view
that society and estates (ranks of nobility and the common people)
are the basic unit of social analysis and toward the view that the
individual is the basis. In this approach, individuals have inherent
qualities, abilities, and rights and society emerged and developed
as the result of a social contract among these individuals.
 Those writers who supported an earlier social order would have
viewed Locke's notion that the state is the result of “individuals
consenting to be governed” to be unacceptable – supporters of an
earlier order viewed society as the basic unit, with people having
to fill their place in this structure.
ENLIGHTENMENT ERA
 The Enlightenment refers to an intellectual movement, primarily in France and Britain, that
spans approximately one hundred years from the 1680s to 1789. Adams and Sydie state
that these “thinkers put society and social relations under intense scrutiny.” (p. 11)
Preceding and setting the stage for the Enlightenment were writers and scientists who
investigated the natural world and systems of thought, writers such as Galileo (Italian),
Newton (English), Francis Bacon (1561-1626, English), René Descartes (1596-1650, French).
Enlightenment writers include Hobbes, Locke, Diderot, Montesquieu, and Rousseau – the
French writers were sometimes called the philosophes. The leading representatives were
religious skeptics, political reformers, cultural critics, historians and social theorists (Zeitlin,
p. 1).
 The writings of the Enlightenment profoundly affected politics and the development of
sociology. The French Revolution (1789) and the American Revolution (1776) had many
causes but many Enlightenment ideas and ways of thinking had a great effect on these
political and social changes. The slogans of “liberty, equality, fraternity” and “life, liberty,
and pursuit of happiness” state the political ideals of these revolutions and reflect the ideas
of Enlightenment thought.
 In contrast to systems of thought where the sacred had dominated and where
questioning was discouraged, Enlightenment thinkers viewed human reason as
dominant. No subjects of study were to be forbidden, there were no unaskable
questions, with all aspects of human life appropriate for examination and study.
 In doing this, Enlightenment thinkers combined the philosophic tradition of
abstract rational thought (Descartes and other philosophers) with the tradition of
experimentation or empirical philosophy (from Galileo, Newton, Bacon and
others). The result was a new system of human inquiry that attacked the old
order and privileges, put emphasis and faith on science, the scientific method
and education, andacquired the practical function of asking critical questions
about existing institutions and demanding that the unreasonable ones, those
contrary to human nature, be changed. All social obstacles to human
perfectibility were to be progressively eliminated. (Zeitlin, p.2).
 The new approach was an empirical and scientific one at the
same time that it was philosophical. The world was an object
of study, and the Enlightenment thinkers thought that people
could understand and control the world by means of reason
and empirical research. Social laws could be discovered, and
society could be improved by means of rational and empirical
inquiry. This form of thought was reformist, and one that
challenged the old order. Enlightenment thinkers were
generally optimistic in outlook, looking on their system of
thought as a way of improving the social world.
 Early sociology developed as a result of the new features of thought
that emerged out of the enlightenment, and out of the conservative
reaction to this. Sociology was first used as a term by Auguste
Comte (French, 1798 - 1857) in 1822. He looked on sociology as a
science, first calling it social physics. The idea of sociology as the
science of society has been adopted by some later sociologists.
 These new developments and ideas were important for the
development of sociology in several ways.
 NB. Most discussions of the origins of sociology trace this to the
Enlightenment and the conservative reaction against the
Enlightenment from those who wished to preserve the old order.
Rousseau and Montesquieu: the 2 thinkers we shall
study in detail

 Montesquieu (1698 – 1755)

 In his book, Spirit of the laws, he sought laws social and historical development.
He argued that social institutions have an interdependent and correlative
relationship with one another and are dependant on the form of the whole.
Therefore, the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Montesquieu studied
forms of government such as the republic, aristocracy, monarchy and despotism.
He can be credited for being the first to use the comparative method of social
research (where he compared several governments from different societies). He
also used the ideal type method that was later adopted by Weber on
bureaucracy. On power – Montesquieu argued that power should not be
concentrated in the hands of one man but be distributed among individuals and
groups of society. He believed that liberty is best preserved where interest groups
check on the government and where laws provide for such checks.
MONTESQUIEU CONT
 His perception of individuals
 Montesquieu looked at people not as a multitude of
individuals but as a society that could be distinguished
from others by its customs and institutions. He can be
regarded as one of the founders of the sociology of
knowledge. Because he argued that the way individuals
perceive customs and ideas of society depends on the
social position one occupies and hence on the cultural
perspective one adopts (which is the whole essence of the
sociology of knowledge)
Rousseau (1712 – 1778)

 “Individuals are born free but are everywhere in chains.” His main objective was to
find a social order whose laws were in harmony with fundamental laws of nature. He
sought an alternative to the prevailing order, which, to his mind, precluded man’s
perfectibility and even deformed and violated his nature. Culture, for Rousseau, is
an invention of man and it suppresses man’s freedom. On government – he argued
that governments originated in order to protect the property of the rich. Karl Marx
later adopted this idea in his study of class struggles.

 Why Rousseau is the forerunner of sociology
 He was among the first philosophers to address systematically the origins, forms
and consequences of inequality in society.
 He saw clearly that inequality is the main cause of strife and war within and among
societies
ROUSSEAU CONT
 On gender
 In his writings of Emile and Sophy Rousseau argued that “men should be
strong and active while women should be weak and passive.” This view
influenced how he looked at education, for example, where he argued that a
woman’s education must be planned in relation to man. Women, in as far as
he was concerned, existed in order t be pleasing in man’s sight, to win his
respect and love. These are the ideas heavily criticized by feminists.
 The ideas of E.T led to an uproar among French conservatives who not only
regarded them as dangerous but also as leading to the French reverend and
the general upheavals that took place in Europe in the 18 th century.

The Conservative Reactions de Bonald & de Maistre
(French)

 The Conservative Reactions de Bonald & de Maistre (French)

 These men were disturbed by the ideas of the E.T, which they
regarded as destructive. They therefore developed a catholic
counter – revolutionary philosophy that called for a restoration of
the old order/regime (ancient regime) that had been destroyed by
the Rev. of 1789. They yearned for the golden past and tried
everything in their will to turn back the hands of the clock.
 These philosophers advanced several propositions on how society
should operate. It is those propositions that directly influenced
Auguste Comte, Durkheim who were the founding fathers of
sociology.
Their Propositions were as
follows:
 They argued that society is greater than the individuals who comprise it. This was a direct attack on
the view held by E.T who stated that only individuals exist and that society is simply the name one
gives to those individuals in their interrelationships.
 Far from individuals constituting society, it is society that crates the individuals by means of moral
education or what Durkheim later called social facts.
 Every institution in society is positively functional – no institution disrupts or is bad for society. They
also argued that institutions are parts of a society, which are interdependent and interrelated.
 Importance of religion and rituals – unlike the E.T who viewed religion, rituals, and ceremonies and
worship as irrational practices of the past, the C.Rs viewed all these as necessary for the unity of
society.
 Conclusion
 The discipline of sociology developed as a reaction to the ideas of E.Ts. It developed mainly as
counter reaction to the enlightenment era. There are; however, some ideas or notions that were
adopted by classical sociologists such as Saint Simon and Comte that directly came from Rousseau
and Montesquieu. While sociology as a discipline did not first emerge out of this, today these ideas
form a central part of sociology. The tradition of critical thought, empirical research, use of reason,
urging social reforms, etc. all have become essential aspects of sociology.
INDUSTRIALISATION AND
URBANISATION
Industrialisationgreatly changed Europe and its people. The discovery and
invention of machines such as the Spinning Jenny, led to the construction of
factories and workhouses. This led to changes in the laws enacted e.g. the Corn
Laws of England 1832 and the factory laws etc. The enclosure act led to the
grabbing of land from peasants thus greatly changing in their lifestyles.
Poverty increased and there was need to explain all these in sociological terms.
It can be argued then, that sociology as a discipline developed in order to explain,
describe and understand the social upheavals that took place in Europe. The
social reforms had to be understood and an attempt to predict the future made.
This led to the people such as German theorist, Ferdinand Tonnies who described
the change from traditional societies into modern societies as the move from
Gemeinschaft to Gesellschaft. It was the move from a community to a society.
INDUSTRIALISATION AND
URBANISATION cont
 Durkheim in his book Division of labour and Marx in his Das Kapital depict the
changes brought in by the new capitalist system. Within these industrial
systems, a few profiteered greatly while the majority worked long hours for low
wages. A distinction between labour and capital was born. Capital referred to
the owners of the means of production with labour referring to those sold their
power to earn a living.
 The expansion of cities produced a long list of urban problems that
attracted the attention of early sociologists. Karl Marx for instance was highly
critical of capitalist society in his writings and engaged in political activities to
help engineer the downfall of capitalism.
A social satire was also presented by Charles Dickens in Oliver Twist (where he
depicted the effects of the British poor laws of 1834).
Urbanisation
 At a similar time to these political revolutions the industrial
revolution was taking place with a move from small-scale
agricultural production to large, factory based manufacturing. This
change brought profound social changes. Prior to this time most
people lived and worked in rural areas in small communities.
 Over the course of the 19th century this changed completely until
the overwhelming majority of people living in large towns and
cities. As people began to live and work in dense close proximity
the structures of society became more obviously discernible in
such large groups of people and the similarities and differences
between people became more obvious.
THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
 With many people being employed in similar professions (often in
factories) new groups and social classes also began to emerge. The new
technologies which were developed in the industrial revolution (such as the
printing press and the steam engine) also changed peoples’ lives in many
ways and helped to produce a sense that society was changing. Previously
society had been assumed to be largely static or to be in decline from a
perfect past.
 People started to be more optimistic about the potential for a better society
through technological advancement. Although, the terrible living and
working conditions many people faced also highlighted the negative sides
to this advancement. This simultaneous optimism and critical attitude
towards development and progress would become central to the
sociological imagination.
 The political revolutions of the late 18th century challenged the “divine right of kings”
and sought to replace this with constitutional democracies. For centuries the rulers of
European (and many other nations) had been monarchs who were “chosen” by God to
rule.
 Their rule could not therefore be challenged as they had a direct line to God; they
were infallible. The French and American revolutionaries challenged this and installed
democratic systems with rule “by the people” (although this was short lived in
France).
 Central principles to these revolutions were the redistribution of wealth and equality of
rights as people were sick of the exploitation of their “superiors” and foreign rule by
the British in the case of America. Because the existing social and political order was
no longer considered to have been ordained by God this means that it can be changed
and that a better society can be produced. This political change thus demonstrated to
people that society is something worth studying and changing for the better.
THE POLITICAL REVOLUTIONS
 The French Revolution of 1789
 It is mainly blamed on the E.T. whose ideas are said to have
fuelled the Revolution. It culminated in the overthrow of the
ancient regime or the Catholic Church rule. This caused much
alarm among conservatives who feared the Rev might spread to
other countries and topple existing regimes. That is why, such
philosophers as Comte and Durkheim were bent on instilling
order, progress and social control. And their ideas on such issues
formed the basis or the foundations of Sociology and it
developed as a discipline

DEVELOPMENTS IN THE NEW SCIENCES
Throughout the 17th century, the technological products of science were permeating/filtering through every
sector of life and science was acquiring enormous prestige.
Newton for instance is often credited for the founding of modern science. He developed laws of gravity
and motion. Afterwards an ongoing debate developed between sociologists who sought to model their
discipline after the natural sciences/hard sciences and those who thought the distinctive characteristics of
social life made a scientific sociology problematic and unwise positivist:- people who believed in the natural
sciences. Interpretivists :- society is varied look at every situation.
Consequently two divergent groups emerged that is the positivists and the Interpretivist/ phenomenologist.
Developments in science had a significant bearing on some prominent forerunners of Sociology. Saint
Simon, Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer’s works all had flavorings of the natural sciences Saint Simon
for instance referred to the human study of conduct as social physiology mostly likely drawing inspiration
from successes in physiology and human anatomy.
Comte’s positivist outlook and his view of sociology as a study of social dynamics and social statistics also
derived from advances in the natural sciences he even named the discipline social physics. Herbert
Spencer came up with the concept of social Darwinism having been inspired by the natural scientist
Charles Darwin and his scientific survival of the fittest.