OSI MODEL

Standards
Standards serve to provide a level process
whenever material exchange takes place
globally.
Often, standards are agreed upon and
implemented by an organization accredited by
most, if not all, the players in an industry.
Organizations which are involved in
standardization processes are like ISO, ANSI, IEEE
and more.
 ISO - International Organization for Standardization
 ANSI - American National Standards Institute
 IEEE - Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
Standards
 For a data communications model, this is very
important as there is a lot of information to be
included in a packet in order for it to be properly
transmitted and received.
 This information should be synchronized
between sender and receiver so that both
parties are able to decipher the information.
 Furthermore, this process should be modularized
to ease synchronization on both ends.
 To facilitate that process, ISO has come up with
the OSI model.
OSI Model
 Established in 1947, the International
Standards Organization (ISO) is a
multinational body dedicated to
worldwide agreement on international
standards.
 An ISO standard that covers all aspects of
network communications is the Open
Systems Interconnection model.
 OSI model was first introduced in the late
1970s.
OSI Model
 The purpose of the OSI model is to show how
to facilitate communication between different
systems without requiring changes to the
logic of the underlying hardware and
software.
 The OSI model is not a protocol; it is a model
for understanding and designing a network
architecture that is flexible, robust, and
interoperable.
 ISO is the organization. OSI is the
model.
The Structure of the OSI
Model
The OSI Model is made up of seven layers,
each representing a step in the network
communications process (the different
stages that data must go through to travel
from one device to another over a network)

Each layer of the OSI serves the layer

above it to allow for a smooth transmission
of information.
Open System Interconnecti
on
 The Open System Interconnection (OSI) model
defines a networking framework to implement
protocols in seven layers. They are,
The Structure of the OSI
Model
• Each layer in the OSI model performs a
specific task in the network
communication process, and then
passes the data up or down to the next
layer
• As the data passes through the layers,
each layer adds its own information in
the form of headers, which are added to
the original data
An exchange using the OSI
model
The Structure of the OSI
Model
 In figure, D7 means the data unit at layer 7,
D6 means the data unit at layer 6, and so
on.
 The process starts at layer 7 (the
application layer), then moves from layer to
layer in descending, sequential order.
 At each layer, a header or possibly a trailer,
can be added to the data unit. Commonly,
the trailer is added only at layer 2
 When the formatted data unit passes
through the physical layer (layer 1), it is
changed into an electromagnetic signal and
The Structure of the OSI
Model
 Upon reaching its destination, the signal
passes into layer 1 and is transformed back
into digital form. The data units then move
back up through the OSI layers.
 As each block of data reaches the next higher
layer, the headers and trailers attached to it at
the corresponding sending layer are removed,
and actions appropriate to that layer are taken.
 By the time it reaches layer 7, the message is
again in a form appropriate to the application
and is made available to the recipient.
The Structure of the OSI
Model
Encapsulation
 This Figure also reveals another aspect

of data communications known as

Encapsulation.
 A packet (header and data) at level 7 is

encapsulated in a packet at level 6. The

whole packet at level 6 is encapsulated
in a packet at level 5, and so on.
The Structure of the OSI
Model
Encapsulation
 In other words, the data portion of a

packet at level N - 1 carries the whole

packet (data and header) from level N.
 This concept is called encapsulation; level

N - 1 is not aware of which part of the

encapsulated packet is data and which
part is the header. For level N - 1, the
whole packet coming from level N is
treated as one integral unit.
TCP/IP (Brief History)
 In the 1970s, another revolution in computer
networking arose: the concept of an Internet.
Many researchers who investigated packet
switching looked for a single packet switching
technology that could handle all needs.
 In 1973, Vinton Cerf and Robert Kahn
observed that no single packet switching
technology would ever satisfy all needs,
especially because it would be possible to
build low-capacity technologies for homes or
offices at extremely low cost.
Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet
Protocol

 Where the OSI model describes how

networks work, the TCP/IP model
describes how the Internet works.
 The TCP/IP stack is the foundation of
Internet communications, and was
developed before the OSI model came to
place.
 It is quickly becoming the most common
network/transport solution for networks
of all sizes and configurations.
 The TCP/IP suite contains independent
TCP/IP
 One of the primary reasons for the success of
TCP/ IP standards lies in their tolerance of
heterogeneity.
 Instead of attempting to dictate details about
packet switching technologies, such as packet
sizes or the method used to identify a
destination, TCP/ IP takes a virtualization
approach that defines a network-independent
packet and a network-independent identification
scheme.
 Then it specifies how the virtual packets are
mapped onto each possible underlying network.
TCP/IP
 The TCP/IP protocol suite was developed
prior to the OSI model. Therefore, the
layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not
exactly match those in the OSI model.
The original TCP/IP protocol suite was
defined as having four layers:
 Application
 Transport
 Internet
 Network Interface
OSI Model vs. TCP/IP Model
TCP/IP
 However, when TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we
can say that the Network Interface layer is
equivalent to the combination of the physical
and data link layers.
 The Internet layer is equivalent to the
network layer.
 Application layer is roughly doing the job of
the session, presentation, and
application layers
 Transport layer in TCP/IP taking care of part
of the duties of the session layer.
Effects of standards on
Telecommunication
 Networking is an international phenomenon,
and recommendations must be made on
how systems and networks should
interoperate.
 Standardization within the industry is
intended to perform three basic functions:
 Facilitate interconnection between

different users
 Facilitate the probability of equipment

within different regions and applications,

with the intent of increasing market size,
resulting in reduced costs for all.
Effects of standards on
Telecommunication
 In recent years, the Internet Society
(ISOC; www.isoc.org) has become an
increasingly important organization.

 Three specific groups within the

International Telecommunications Union
(ITU) are relevant to telecommunications.
Effects of standards on
Telecommunication
 The ITU-T (www.itu.int/ITU-T), Established in 1927,
the telecommunications standardization sector,
develops recommendations for wire line networks
 The ITU-R (www.itu.int/ITU-R), Established in
1956, the radio communications standardization
sector, deals with the wireless arena.
 Development (ITU-D) Established in 1992, this
sector helps spread equitable, sustainable and
affordable access to information and
communication technologies (ICT).
Effects of standards on
Telecommunication

ISOC has an agreement to work with the

ITU to ensure that developments do not
take place separately in evolving the
PSTN versus the Internet.
 IP telephony (Internet Protocol telephony)

uses the internet to deliver calls as

packets of data on shared lines. Also know
as VOIP it is the real-time transmission of
voice signals over the internet or private
data network.
‹#›
Effects of standards on
Telecommunication

 PSTN (The Public Switched Telephone

Network) is the network of the world’s
public circuit-switched telephone
networks.
 The PSTN is made up of fiber optic cables,
microwave transmission links,
communications satellites, undersea
telephone cables, telephone lines and
cellular networks.
Effects of standards on
Telecommunication
• In order to make room for the many – often
conflicting – interests, the international
standards-making organizations concentrate on
producing base standards
• These base standards contain allowable variants
or options, which are defined by the
implementer
• These groups also develop test specifications
and methods, and independent test houses then
perform the necessary conformance testing and
certify products that meet the requirements
Summary
 OSI Model
 TCP/IP Model
 Effects of Standards on
Telecommunication
The interaction between layers in the
OSI model
OSI Reference Model
 The Figure shows the layers involved when a
message is sent from device A to device B.
As the message travels from A to B, it may
pass through many intermediate nodes.
These intermediate nodes usually involve
only the first three layers of the OSI model.
 Within a single machine, each layer calls
upon the services of the layer just below it.
Layer 3, for example, uses the services
provided by layer 2 and provides services
for layer 4.
OSI Reference Model
 Between machines, layer x on one machine
communicates with layer x on another
machine. This communication is governed
by an agreed-upon series of rules and
conventions called protocols.
 The processes on each machine that
communicate at a given layer are called
peer-to-peer processes. Communication
between machines is therefore a peer-to-
peer process using the protocols appropriate
to a given layer.
OSI Reference Model
Peer to Peer Process
 At the physical layer, communication is

direct: Device A sends a stream of bits to

device B (through intermediate nodes). At
the higher layers, however,
communication must move down through
the layers on device A, over to device B,
and then back up through the layers.
 At layer 1 the entire package is converted

to a form that can be transmitted to the

receiving device.
OSI Reference Model
Peer to Peer Process
 At the receiving machine, the message is

unwrapped layer by layer, with each

process receiving and removing the data
meant for it.
 For example, layer 2 removes the data

meant for it, then passes the rest to layer

3. Layer 3 then removes the data meant
for it and passes the rest to layer 4, and
so on.
OSI Reference Model
Organization of the Layers
 The seven layers can be divided into three

subgroups. Layers I, 2, and 3-physical,

data link, and network-are the network
support layers; they deal with the physical
aspects of moving data from one device
to another (such as electrical
specifications, physical connections,
physical addressing, and transport timing
and reliability).
OSI Reference Model
Organization of the Layers
 And Layers 5, 6, and 7-session,

presentation, and application- represents

as the user support layers; they allow
interoperability among unrelated software
systems.
 Layer 4, the transport layer, links the two

subgroups and ensures that what the

lower layers have transmitted is in a form
that the upper layers can use.
Physical Layer
Physical Layer
 The physical layer coordinates the functions
required to carry a bit stream over a physical
medium.
 It deals with the mechanical and electrical
specifications of the interface and transmission
medium.
 It also defines the procedures and functions that
physical devices and interfaces have to perform
for transmission to occur. Figure shows the
position of the physical layer with respect to the
transmission medium and the data link layer.
Physical Layer
Responsibilities of Physical Layer:
 Representation of bits. Physical

characteristics of interfaces between the

devices and the transmission medium.
 The physical layer data consists of a stream

of bits (sequence of Os or 1s), to be

transmitted, bits must be encoded into
signals electrical or optical.
 Data rate. The transmission rate-the

number of bits sent each second-is also

defined by the physical layer.
 Synchronization of bits. The sender and
Physical Layer
 Line configuration. The physical layer is
concerned with the connection of devices
to the media. In a point-to-point
configuration, two devices are connected
through a dedicated link. In a multipoint
configuration, a link is shared among
several devices.
 Physical topology. The physical
topology defines how devices are
connected to make a network.
 Transmission mode. The physical layer
Data Link Layer
 The data link layer is responsible for node-
to-node delivery.
 Its primary concern is the ability to connect
a sender to the receiver on one network -
provides reliable transit of data across a
physical network link
• This layer has been further divided into two
sublayers:
• Media Access Control (MAC)
• Logical Link Control (LLC)
Node-to-Node Delivery
Node-to-Node Delivery
 As the figure shows, communication at the
data link layer occurs between two adjacent
nodes.
 To send data from A to F, three partial
deliveries are made. First, the data link layer
at A sends a frame to the data link layer at B
(a router).
 Second, the data link layer at B sends a new
frame to the data link layer at E.
 Finally, the data link layer at E sends a new
frame to the data link layer at F.
Node-to-Node Delivery
 The frames that are exchanged between the
three nodes have different values in the
headers.
 The frame from A to B has B as the
destination address and A as the source
address.
 The frame from B to E has E as the destination
address and B as the source address.
 The frame from E to F has F as the destination
address and E as the source address.
Data Link Layer
• MAC Addressing
• The MAC sub layer handles physical addressing
issues
• In fact, the physical address, which on an Ethernet
or a Token Ring network is a hexadecimal number
that is permanently burned into the chip on the
network interface card (NIC), is called the MAC
address
• The media access control method allocates access
to the network by computers. Media access control
occurs, appropriately enough, at the MAC sub layer
• Example: 0A-B1-C2-D3-E4-F5
Data Link Layer
• The LLC Layer and Logical Topology
• At the LLC sublayer, the logical topology of
the network is defined
• This sublayer is responsible also for
providing a link, or interface, between the
MAC sublayer following it and the network
layer above it
Data Link Layer
Data Link Layer
Network Layer
 The network layer is responsible for the source-
to-destination delivery of a packet, possibly
across multiple networks (links).
 It ensures that each packet gets from its point of
origin to its final destination.
 It allows for connectivity between source and
destination across multiple networks – by using
logical address (network address/IP address).
Routers can use this layer to determine how to
forward packets. Because of this, much of the
design and configuration work for internetworks
happens at this layer.
Network Layer
 Nodes which are connected in one
network usually do not use the functions
of the network layer.
 This layer also handles prioritization of
data types (the basis of Quality of Service
[QoS]), which assures some level of
guarantee for sufficient network resources
for high-bandwidth applications such as
live video
Network Layer
Network Layer
Source-to-destination delivery
Network Layer
Source-to-destination delivery

 The network layer at A sends the packet to the

network layer at B. When the packet arrives at
router B, the router makes a decision based on
the final destination (F) of the packet.
 As we will see in later chapters, router B uses its
routing table to find that the next hop is router E.
 The network layer at B, therefore, sends the
packet to the network layer at E.
 The network layer at E, in turn, sends the packet
to the network layer at F.
Transport Layer
 The transport layer is responsible for
process-to-process delivery of the entire
message. A process is an application
program running on a host.
 Whereas the network layer oversees
source-to-destination delivery of individual
packets, it does not recognize any
relationship between those packets.
 It treats each one independently, as
though each piece belonged to a separate
message, whether or not it does.
Transport Layer
 The transport layer, on the other hand,
ensures that the whole message arrives
intact and in order, overseeing both error
control and flow control at the source-to-
destination level.
 The figure below shows the relationship
between the transport layer to the
network and the session layers.
Transport Layer

The transport layer is responsible for

the delivery of a message from one
Transport Layer
(Responsibilities)
 Service-point addressing: Computers often run
several programs at the same time. For this reason,
source-to-destination delivery means delivery not
only from one computer to the next but also from a
specific process (running program) on one computer
to a specific process (running program) on the other.
The transport layer header must therefore include a
type of address called a service-point address (or
port address). The network layer gets each packet to
the correct computer; the transport layer gets the
entire message to the correct process on that
computer.
Transport Layer
(Responsibilities)
 Segmentation and reassembly: A
message is divided into transmittable
segments, with each segment containing
a sequence number. These numbers
enable the transport layer to reassemble
the message correctly upon arriving at
the destination and to identify and
replace packets that were lost in
transmission.
Transport Layer
(Responsibilities)
 Connection control: The transport layer can be
either connectionless or connection oriented.
 A connectionless transport layer treats each
segment as an independent packet and delivers it
to the transport layer at the destination machine.
 A connection oriented transport layer makes a
connection with the transport layer at the
destination machine first before delivering the
packets.
 After all the data are transferred, the connection
is terminated.
Transport Layer
(Responsibilities)
 Flow Control: Like the data link layer, the transport
layer is responsible for flow control. However, flow
control at this layer is performed end to end rather
than across a single link.
 Error control: Like the data link layer, the transport
layer is responsible for error control.
 However, error control at this layer is performed
process-to­process rather than across a single link. The
sending transport layer makes sure that the entire
message arrives at the receiving transport layer
without error (damage, loss, or duplication). Error
correction is usually achieved through retransmission.
Transport Layer

Reliable process-to-process delivery of a

message
Session Layer
 The session layer looks at the entire
session and provides some form of
dialog control. Because the services
provided by the first three layers
(physical, data link, and network) are not
sufficient for some processes.
 It establishes, maintains, and
synchronizes the interaction among
communicating systems.
Session Layer
(Responsibilities)
 Dialog control: The session layer allows two
systems to enter into a dialog. It allows the
communication between two processes to take
place in either half­duplex (one way at a time)
or full-duplex (two ways at a time) mode.
 Full-duplex allows communication in both
directions, and unlike half-duplex, allows this
to happen simultaneously. - e.g. telephone
 Half-duplex provides for communication in
both directions, but only one direction at a
time (not simultaneously) – e.g. walkie-talkie
 Simplex communication flow in only one
direction – e.g. Cable
Session Layer
(Responsibilities)
 Synchronization: The session layer allows
a process to add checkpoints, or
synchronization points, to a stream of data.
 For example, if a system is sending a file

of 2000 pages, it is advisable to insert

checkpoints after every 100 pages to
ensure that each 100-page unit is
received and acknowledged
independently.
 In this case, if a crash happens during the

transmission of page 523, the only pages

that need to be resent after system
Session Layer

Figure: illustrates the relationship of the

session layer to the
Presentation Layer
 The presentation layer is concerned with the
syntax and semantics of the information
exchanged between two systems.
 The application layer protocol receives the data
from the user application and passes it down
the stack to the presentation layer
 As its name suggests, this layer handles issues
that have to do with the packaging or
presentation of the data
 These issues include data compression, data
encryption, protocol translation
Presentation Layer
(Responsibilities)
 Translation: The processes (running
programs) in two systems are usually
exchanging information in the form of
character strings, numbers, and so on. The
information must be changed to bit streams
before being transmitted.
 As different computers use different encoding
systems, the presentation layer is responsible
for interoperability between these different
encoding methods.
 The presentation layer at the sender changes
the information from its sender-dependent
Presentation Layer
(Responsibilities)
 Encryption: To carry sensitive information, a
system must be able to ensure privacy.
 Encryption means that the sender transforms the
original information to another form and sends
the resulting message out over the network.
 Decryption reverses the original process to
transform the message back to its original form.
 This conversion of data into an encoded form is
done so that it cannot be read by unauthorized
persons
Presentation Layer
(Responsibilities)
 Compression: Data compression reduces
the number of bits contained in the
information. Data compression becomes
particularly important in the transmission
of multimedia such as text, audio, and
video.
 This is the reduction of the size of the data
to facilitate faster transmission over the
network
Presentation Layer

The presentation layer is responsible for

translation, compression, and encryption.
Application Layer
 The first and most important thing to understand
about the application layer is that it is not the
user application that creates the message.
 Rather, this layer provides for interaction
between that application program and the
network
 It provides user interfaces and support for
services such as electronic mail, remote file
access and transfer, shared database
management, and other types of distributed
information services.
Application Layer

The application layer is responsible for

providing services to the user.
Application Layer
 Above figure shows the relationship of the
application layer to the user and the
presentation layer.
 Of the many application services available,
the figure shows only three: XAOO
(message-handling services), X.500
(directory services), and file transfer,
access, and management (FTAM).
 The user in this example employs XAOO to
send an e-mail message.
Application Layer
(Responsibilities)
 Network virtual terminal: It is a software
version of a physical terminal, and it allows
a user to log on to a remote host. To do so,
the application creates a software
emulation of a terminal at the remote host.
 The user's computer talks to the software
terminal which, in turn, talks to the host,
and vice versa. The remote host believes it
is communicating with one of its own
terminals and allows the user to log on.
Application Layer
(Responsibilities)
 File transfer, access, and management: This
application allows a user to access files in a
remote host (to make changes or read data), to
retrieve files from a remote computer for use in
the local computer, and to manage or control files
in a remote computer locally.
 Mail services: This application provides the basis
for e-mail forwarding and storage.
 Directory services: This application provides
distributed database sources and access for
global information about various objects and
services.
Summary of Layers