INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED RESEARCH

THE UNIVERSITY FOR INNOVATION

Introductory Biology
Assignment
PRESENTED BY- Jayrajsinh Gadhavi 14285
Durwa Oza 14092
Jiya Bhatt 14120
Hetvi Bhatt 14654
Mahatta Salvi 14057

PRESENTED TO- Mr.Parshant Dahiya (lecturer, IAR)

Anatomy of Male and
Female Reproductive
Parts
By Mahatta Salvi
IAR no:- 14057
 The Male Reproductive System
● The male reproductive system is located in the pelvis region and it includes a
pair of testes along with accessory ducts, glands and the external genitalia.
● The testes are situated outside the abdominal cavity within a pouch called
Scrotum. It helps in maintaining the low temperature of testes (2-2.5 degree
lower) necessary for spermatogenesis.
● Each testis is in oval shape, with a length of about 4-5 cm and a width of
about 2-3 cm in adults. Each testis has about 250 compartments called
testicular lobules.
● Each lobule contains 1-3 seminiferous tubules in which sperms are
produced and it is lined by two types of cells called male germ cells
(spermatogonia) and sertoli cells.
 The Male Reproductive System
● Sperm formation occurs after gametogenesis while sertoli cells provide
nutrition to the germ cells. The region out the seminiferous tubules is called
interstitial spaces, contain small blood vessels and interstitial cells or
Leydig cells. These cells synthesise and secrete testicular hormones called
androgens. Other immunologically competent cells are also present.
● Sertoli cells aka nurse cells and sustentacular cells are the blood and testes
barrier. They are phagocytic in nature. It also stimulates Follicle Stimulating
Hormone (FSH).
● Leydig cells produce the primary male sex hormone, Testosterone. It also
have clotting factors.
● On an average, a healthy human male produces 45-207 millions sperms per
day.
 The Male Reproductive System
● The male sex accessory ducts include rete testis, vasa efferentia,
epididymis and vas deferens.
● The seminiferous tubules of the testis open into the vasa efferentia through
rete testis. The vasa efferentia leave the testis and open into epididymis
located along the posterior surface of each testis. The epididymis leads to the
vas deferens that ascends to the abdomen and loops over the urinary
bladder.
● It receives a duct from seminal vesicle and opens into urethra as the
ejaculatory duct.
● The urethra originates from the urinary bladder and extends through the penis
to its external opening called urethral meatus.
 The Male Reproductive System
● The penis is the male external genitalia. It is made up of special tissue i.e.
erectile tissue, which is highly supplied by the blood vessels, helps in erection
of the penis to facilitate insemination. The enlarged end of penis called the
glans penis is covered by a loose fold of skin called foreskin.
● The male accessory glands include a paired seminal vesicles, a prostate and
paired bulbourethral glands.
● Seminal vesicle: It produces fructose, 70% of the seminal fluid is produced.
It is slightly alkaline (7.3 pH) because the secretions near the vagina is acidic.
It facilitate agglutination of sperms.
 The Male Reproductive System
● Prostate gland: It is made up of 5 lobes. An anterior lobe, posterior lobe, 2
lateral lobes and median lobe. 30% of the seminal fluid is produced by this
gland. It also contains calcium and phosphate ions. It also have clotting
factors.
● Bulbourethral gland: Aka as cowper's gland. It helps in lubrication. This fluid
is mainly made up of water and mucus along with enzymes and other
proteins. It plays a small but important role in reproduction.
● Ejaculatory duct is 2 cm long. Urethra is the reproductory and excretory part.
It is 20 cm long.
● Penis is divided into 2 parts: corpora cavernosa and corpora spongiosum.
The Female Reproductive System
● The female reproductive system consists of a pair of ovaries along with a
pair of oviducts, uterus, cervix, vagina and the external genitalia located
pelvic region. These parts of the system along with a pair of the mammary
glands are integrated structurally and functionally to support the process of
ovulation, fertilisation, pregnancy, birth and child care.
● Ovaries are the primary sex organs that produce the female gamete (ovum)
and several steroid hormones.these are located one on each side of the
lower abdomen. Each ovary is about 2-4 cm in length and is connected to
the pelvic wall and uterus by ligaments. These ligaments are broad and
round ligaments. Each ovary is covered by by a thin epithelium which
encloses the ovarian stroma. The stroma is divided into two zones- a
peripheral cortex and an inner medulla
The Female Reproductive System
● The fallopian tubes, uterus and vagina constitute the female accessory ducts. Each
fallopian tube is about 10-12 cm long and extends from the periphery of each ovary
to the uterus. Histologically, oviducts contains 3 layers: serosa, mucosa and
muscularis. The part closer to the ovary is the funnel-shaped infundibulum. The
edges of the infundibulum possess finger-like projections called fimbriae, which help
in collection of the ovum after ovulation. The infundibulum leads to wider part called
ampulla. The last part of the oviduct, isthmus has a narrow lumen and it joins the
uterus. Fertilisation takes place at ampullary-isthmic junction.
● Ovary’s outermost layer is germinal epithelium. The layer inside the germinal
epithelium is the medulla and the innermost is cortex. Tunica albuginea is the
connective tissue which connects germinal epithelium to medulla.
 The Female Reproductive System
● The uterus is single and it is aka womb. The shape of the uterus is like an
inverted pear, supported by ligaments attached to the pelvic wall. It opens into
vagina through a narrow cervix, the cavity of the cervix is called cervical canal
which along with vagina forms the birth canal. The cervical opening has 2
parts: internal os (towards the womb) and external os (towards the vagina).
● The uterus has 3 layers: perimetrium, myometrium and endometrium. The
endometrium undergoes cyclic changes during menstrual cycle while
myometrium strong contractions during parturition.
● The female external genitalia include mons pubis, labia majora, labia
minora, hymen and clitoris.
 The Female Reproductive System
● Mons pubis: is a cushion of fatty tissue covered by skin and pubic hair.
● Labia majora: are freshy folds of tissue which extend down from the mons pubis and
surround the vaginal opening. Presence of sweat and sebaceous glands, made up of
fatty tissue, homologous to scrotum.
● Labia minora: are paired of freshy folds of tissue under the labia majora.
● Hymen: the opening of vagina is often covered partially by a membrane called hymen.
Often torn during the first coitus.
● Clitoris: is a tiny finger-like structure which lies at the upper junction of two labia
minora. It is made up of prepuce, most sensitive part of female’s body, homologous to
foreskin.
● There is a presence of 2 glands near the vaginal opening: Bartholin’s gland and
Skene’s gland.
● Bartholin’s gland: helps in lubrication, homologous to bulbourethral gland.
● Skene’s gland: homologous to prostate gland.
 The Female Reproductive System
● A functional mammary gland is characteristic of all female mammals. The
mammary glands are paired structures that contain glandular tissue and
variable amount of fat. The glandular tissue of each breast is divided into 15-
20 mammary lobes containing clusters of cells called alveoli. The cells of
alveoli secrete milk, which is stored in the cavities of alveoli. The alveoli open
into mammary tubules. The tubules of each lobe join to form a mammary
duct. Several mammary ducts joins to form a wider mammary ampulla which
is connected to lactiferous duct through which milk is sucked out.
Gametogenesis

Jayrajsinh Gadhavi
IAR No:-14285
Introduction
● Gametogenesis is the fundamental process by which living organisms
produce haploid gametes, sex cells that carry half the organism's genetic
information.
● These gametes, sperm in males and eggs (ova) in females, fuse during
fertilization to create a diploid zygote, the first cell of a new generation.
● Gametogenesis is a vital process for sexual reproduction.
● It allows organisms to shuffle their genes and create genetic diversity in their
offspring.
Types Of Gametogenesis
There are two main types of gametogenesis:

1. Spermatogenesis ( In Males) :- This is the process by which

sperm are produced in the male reproductive organs, the testes.

2. Oogenesis ( In Females) :- This is the process by which eggs are

produced in the female reproductive organs, the ovaries.
Types of Gametogenesis
SPERMATOGENESIS OOGENESIS

● Spermatogonia Spermatogonia are ● Oogenesis Oogonia are diploid germ

diploid germ cells that undergo mitosis cells that undergo mitosis to produce
to produce more spermatogonia. Some oogonia. Some oogonia, however,
spermatogonia, however, become become primary oocytes. This occurs
primary spermatocytes. before birth.
● Meiosis Primary spermatocytes ● Meiosis I Primary oocytes begin
undergo meiosis I to produce meiosis I but arrest in prophase I until
secondary spermatocytes, which are puberty. At puberty, some primary
haploid cells. Secondary oocytes complete meiosis I, producing
spermatocytes then undergo meiosis II secondary oocytes and polar bodies.
to produce spermatids. Secondary oocytes are surrounded by
follicular cells and arrest in metaphase
II.
3rd Stage Of Both
Gametogenesis
SPERMATOGENESIS OOGENESIS

● Spermiogenesis Spermatids undergo ● Meiosis II and ovulation If a secondary

spermiogenesis, a process of oocyte is fertilized, it completes
differentiation that transforms them meiosis II after a sperm penetrates the
into mature sperm cells. egg. Meiosis II produces an ovum and
another polar body.
Why Meiosis Is Essential
Process
● Meiosis is essential for sexual reproduction because it ensures that the
offspring has the correct number of chromosomes.
● If gametes were not haploid, then fertilization would result in offspring with
too many chromosomes, which would be fatal.
Importance Of Gametogenesis
● Creation of Offspring: It's the foundation for creating new individuals!
Through gametogenesis, organisms produce gametes (sperm and eggs) that
carry half their genetic information.
● Genetic Diversity: It shuffles the genetic deck! Meiosis, a key part of
gametogenesis, is all about creating genetic variation in the gametes.
● Evolutionary Advantage: It provides a survival edge! Sexual reproduction,
made possible by gametogenesis, allows for the mixing of genes from two
parents.
 HORMONE
REGULATION

Durwa Oza
IAR/14092
Male Reproductive Hormones and their
Crucial Roles:
1.Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH):
GnRH is produced in the hypothalamus and travels to the pituitary gland.

It stimulates the secretion of two key hormones:

Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH): FSH is essential for spermatogenesis

(sperm maturation).

Luteinizing Hormone (LH): LH binds to Leydig cells in the testes, stimulating

the production of testosterone and other androgens.
2. Testosterone:
Produced by LEYDIG CELLS in the testes.
Key functions:

Spermatogenesis: It supports the process of sperm production.

Secondary Sexual Characteristics: Testosterone influences muscle growth,
body hair, and voice deepening.

3. Inhibin:
Acts as negative feedback to regulate hormone levels.
Specifically, it slows down the release of FSH and GnRH.
Hormones and their Role in the Female
Reproductive Cycle :
1.Follicular Phase:

Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH): At the start of the cycle, FSH levels rise.
FSH stimulates the growth of ovarian follicles.

Luteinizing Hormone (LH): As FSH increases, LH also rises. LH surge triggers

ovulation, releasing a mature egg from the ovary.

Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH): GnRH plays a crucial role in

regulating FSH and LH release.
2. Ovulation:
The LH surge leads to ovulation, where the mature egg is released from the ovary.

3. Luteal Phase:
Estrogen: Following ovulation, estrogen levels continue to rise. Estrogen
stimulates the proliferation of the uterine lining (endometrium).

Progesterone: The corpus luteum, formed after ovulation, secretes progesterone.

Progesterone maintains the endometrium and prepares it for potential implantation.

LH and FSH Levels: LH and FSH levels decrease due to negative feedback from
high estrogen and progesterone
4.Without Implantation:
If fertilization doesn't occur, estrogen and progesterone levels decline.
The corpus luteum regresses, leading to menstruation.

In summary, estrogen and progesterone orchestrate the menstrual cycle, ensuring

proper follicular development, ovulation, and endometrial preparation. These
hormones play a vital role in fertility and reproductive health .
Mechanism of Hormonal Control
1. Male Hormonal Control:
The hypothalamus monitors and causes the release of hormones from the pituitary gland.
At the onset of puberty, the hypothalamus stimulates the release of two key hormones:

Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH):

FSH enters the testes and stimulates Sertoli cells to facilitate spermatogenesis (sperm
maturation).
Luteinizing Hormone (LH): LH stimulates the interstitial cells of Leydig to produce and
release testosterone into the testes and bloodstream.
Testosterone:
Responsible for secondary sexual characteristics in males during adolescence.
Stimulates spermatogenesis.
Secondary sex characteristics include a deepening voice, facial hair growth, and
increased sex drive.

Negative Feedback System:

Rising testosterone levels inhibit the release of GnRH, FSH, and LH via negative
feedback.
Sertoli cells produce inhibin, which reduces GnRH and FSH release when sperm count
is high.
2. Female Hormonal Control:
More complex than male control.
Anterior pituitary hormones cause the release of FSH and LH.
Developing follicles release estrogens and progesterone.

Estrogen:
Assists in endometrial regrowth, ovulation, and calcium absorption.
Responsible for female secondary sexual characteristics.

Progesterone:
Maintains the endometrium and prepares it for potential implantation.

In summary, the intricate interplay of hormones from the hypothalamus, anterior

pituitary, and reproductive tissues ensures proper male and female reproductive
processes. These hormones orchestrate fertility, sexual development, and overall
reproductive health.
Fertilization and
Pregnancy

By- Durwa Oza

IAR/14092
Process of Fertilization:
Fertilization is a complex process that involves the union of a sperm (male gamete)
and an egg (female gamete) to form a zygote, which then has the potential to
develop into a new organism.

Here’s detailed explanation of the process:

Encounter Between Sperm and Egg: The process begins with the release of
sperm into the female reproductive tract during copulation. The sperm then travels
towards the egg, which is typically located in the fallopian tube.

Acrosomal Reaction: As the sperm approaches the egg, it undergoes an acrosomal

reaction, releasing enzymes that help it penetrate the protective layer around the
egg called the zona pellucida.
Fusion of Gametes: Once the sperm reaches the egg, the membranes of the two gametes fuse,
allowing the sperm to enter the egg.

Cortical Reaction: This reaction in the egg prevents other sperms from binding to the egg,
ensuring that only one sperm fertilizes the egg, a mechanism that prevents polyspermy.

Formation of Zygote: The sperm’s nucleus merges with the egg’s nucleus, resulting in a
fertilized egg or zygote. This zygote contains a full set of chromosomes, half from the mother
and half from the father.

Activation of Egg: The fusion of gametes triggers several reactions in the egg, one of which
changes the egg membrane to prevent further sperm entry. This activation allows the egg to
begin cell division.

Cell Division and Development: The zygote undergoes cell division and starts developing into
an embryo. It travels down the fallopian tube and implants itself in the uterus, where it
continues to grow and develop into a fetus.
 Stages of Embryonic Development
Pre-embryonic Stage: This initial stage spans the first two weeks after
fertilization. It includes the formation of a zygote, which undergoes rapid cell
division to become a multicellular structure known as a blastocyst.

Implantation: The blastocyst attaches itself to the uterine wall, typically

around the end of the first week post-fertilization. This marks the beginning of
the embryonic stage.

Gastrulation: Occurring in the third week, gastrulation is where cells start to

move and form the three primary germ layers: ectoderm, mesoderm, and
endoderm. These layers will eventually give rise to all the organs and tissues.
Neurulation: Following gastrulation, neurulation begins. This is when the neural tube
forms from the ectoderm, which will become the central nervous system, including the
brain and spinal cord.

Organogenesis: From the fourth week onwards, the germ layers differentiate into various
organs and structures in a process called organogenesis. By the end of this stage, the
rudimentary forms of major organs are established.

Fetal Stage: Starting from the ninth week, the embryo is now referred to as a fetus. This
period is characterized by the growth and maturation of the already formed organs and
tissues.

Throughout these stages, the developing embryo undergoes significant changes, including
cell division, migration, and differentiation. By the end of the embryonic period, all organ
systems are structured in rudimentary form, although they may not be fully functional yet.
During Pregnancy:
Once pregnant, regular healthcare appointments are necessary throughout each
stage of pregnancy.
Visits may include routine tests and screenings, monitoring blood pressure, weight
gain, the baby’s growth and heart rate, and discussing diet and exercise.
The frequency of visits typically increases as the pregnancy progresses, with
weekly visits during the ninth month.

High-Risk Pregnancies:
If the pregnancy is considered high risk due to age or health conditions, more
frequent visits and special care may be required. A specialist who works with high-
risk pregnancies might be involved in the care plan.
 Pregnancy and Prenatal Care
Pregnancy and prenatal care are essential aspects of ensuring the health and well-
being of both the expectant mother and the developing baby.
Here’s a detailed overview:
Pregnancy Care:
Pregnancy care includes prenatal (before birth) and postpartum (after birth)
healthcare.
It involves treatments and training to ensure a healthy pregnancy, preparation for labor
and delivery, and care for the mother and baby.
Prenatal Care:
Prenatal care is crucial for decreasing risks during pregnancy and increasing the
chance of a safe and healthy delivery.
Regular prenatal visits allow healthcare providers to monitor the pregnancy and
identify any potential problems early on.
Postpartum Care:
Postpartum care is also vital, lasting six to eight weeks after the baby is born.

This period involves the mother going through physical and emotional changes while
learning to care for her newborn.

Proper rest, nutrition, and vaginal care are important aspects of postpartum care.

For a comprehensive understanding of pregnancy and prenatal care, including how to

prepare for labor and what to expect during and after pregnancy, resources like
Healthline and Planned Parenthood offer valuable information.
Reproductive Health and
Assisted Reproductive
Technologies

By Jiya Bhatt
IAR No: 14120
Common Reproductive Health
Issues
Reproductive health issues can affect people of all ages, genders, and
backgrounds. These issues can have significant physical, emotional, and
social implications. Some common reproductive health issues include:
STIs
Unintended pregnancy
Infertility
Menstrual disorders
Reproductive cancers
Sexual dysfunction
Sexually Transmitted Infections
(STIs)
Infections or diseases which are transmitted through sexual intercourse are collectively called sexually
transmitted infections (STI) or venereal diseases (VD) or reproductive tract infections (RTI).

Gonorrhoea, syphilis, genital herpes, chlamydiasis, genital warts, trichomoniasis, hepatitis-B and of
course, the most discussed infection in the recent years, HIV leading to AIDS are some of the common
STIs.

Early symptoms of most of these are minor and include itching, fluid discharge, slight pain, swellings,
etc., in the genital region. Infected females may often be asymptomatic and hence, may remain
undetected for long. Absence or less significant symptoms in the early stages of infection and the social
stigma attached to the STIs, deter the infected persons from going for timely detection and proper
treatment. This could lead to complications later, which include pelvic inflammatory diseases (PID),
abortions, stillbirths, ectopic pregnancies, infertility or even cancer of the reproductive tract.
Preventive Measures and
Treatments
Preventive measures and treatments for common reproductive health issues vary depending on the
specific condition.
Prevention or early detection and cure of these diseases are given prime consideration under the
reproductive health-care programmes. Though all persons are vulnerable to these infections, their
incidences are reported to be very high among persons in the age group of 15-24 years – the age group
to which you also belong.
One could be free of these infections by following the simple principles given below:
(i) Avoid sex with unknown partners/multiple partners.
(ii) Always try to use condoms during coitus.
(iii) In case of doubt, one should go to a qualified doctor for early detection and get complete treatment if
diagnosed with infection.
Infertility
A large number of couples all over the world including India are infertile, i.e., they are
unable to produce children in spite of unprotected sexual cohabitation.The reasons for
this could be many–physical, congenital, diseases, drugs, immunological or even
psychological.Specialised health care units (infertility clinics, etc.) could help in
diagnosis and corrective treatment of some of these disorders and enable these
couples to have children. However, where such corrections are not possible, the
couples could be assisted to have children through certain special techniques
commonly known as assisted reproductive technologies (ART).
Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ART)

In vitro fertilisation (IVF–fertilisation outside the body in almost similar conditions as

that in the body) followed by embryo transfer (ET) is one of such methods. In this
method, popularly known as test tube baby programme, ova from the wife/donor
(female) and sperms from the husband/donor (male) are collected and are induced to
form zygote under simulated conditions in the laboratory. The zygote or early embryos
(with upto 8 blastomeres) could then be transferred into the fallopian tube (ZIFT–
zygote intrafallopian transfer) and embryos with more than 8 blastomeres, into the
uterus (IUT – intrauterine transfer), to complete its further development. Embryos
formed by in-vivo fertilisation (fusion of gametes within the female) also could be used
for such transfer to assist those females who cannot conceive.
Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ART)

Transfer of an ovum collected from a donor into the fallopian tube (GIFT – gamete
intrafallopian transfer) of another female who cannot produce one, but can provide
suitable environment for fertilisation and further development is another method
attempted. Intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) is another specialised procedure to
form an embryo in the laboratory in which a sperm is directly injected into the ovum.
Infertility cases either due to inability of the male partner to inseminate the female or
due to very low sperm counts in the ejaculates, could be corrected by artificial
insemination (AI) technique. In this technique, the semen collected either from the
husband or a healthy donor is artificially introduced either into the vagina or into the
uterus (IUI – intrauterine insemination) of the female.
Surrogacy
Surrogacy is an arrangement, often supported by a legal agreement, whereby a woman agrees to
delivery/labour on behalf of another couple or person, who will become the child's parents after birth.
People may seek a surrogacy arrangement when a couple or single woman do not wish to carry a
pregnancy themselves, when pregnancy is medically impossible, when pregnancy risks are dangerous
for the intended mother. It takes place when an embryo created by in vitro fertilization (IVF) technology is
implanted in a surrogate, sometimes called a gestational carrier. Gestational surrogacy has several
forms, and in each form, the resulting child is genetically unrelated to the surrogate:

The embryo is created using the intended father's sperm and the intended mother's eggs;

The embryo is created using the intended father's sperm and a donor egg;

The embryo is created using the intended mother's egg and donor sperm;

A donor embryo is transferred to a surrogate. Such an embryo may be available when others undergoing
IVF have embryos left over, which they donate to others. The resulting child is genetically unrelated to the
intended parents.
Ethical & Societal
Issues

By: Hetvi Bhatt, IAR/14654

Ethical Considerations In Reproductive
Technologies
● CONSENT: making sure that individuals fully understand the procedures,
risks and potential outcomes before undergoing any reproductive technology.
● ACCESS & EQUITY: addressing disparities in access to reproductive
technologies based on factors such as socioeconomic status, race or
geography.
● GENETIC SCREENING: embryos are selected based on certain traits, which
leads to eugenics or discrimination.
CONTD…
● REPRODUCTIVE RIGHTS: respecting individuals’ rights of
surrogate mothers.
● AVOIDING HARM: reproductive technologies should not cause
harm to individuals or society.
● PROMOTING BENEFIT: aim to maximize benefits for individuals
and society.
● SURROGACY: avoiding exploitation of the surrogate mothers.
Impact Of Reproductive Health On Society
● POPULATION DYNAMICS: reproductive health influences population growth
rates, demographics and age structures.
● MATERNAL & CHILD HEALTH: access to reproductive healthcare services,
including prenatal care, family planning and maternal health services; this
increases maternal mortality rates, infant mortality rates etc.
● SOCIOECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT: improved reproductive health
contributes to economic development by empowering individuals.
● PUBLIC HEALTH: addressing reproductive health issues like STIs, unwanted
pregnancies, etc. improves overall public health and reduces the healthcare
cost.
CONTD…
● GENDER EQUALITY: reproductive health intersects with gender equality as
access to reproductive healthcare and family planning enables women to
control their fertility, make decision about their bodies and participate more
equally in society.
● FAMILY & COMMUNITY WELL-BEING: impacts family and community well-
being by promoting healthy planning, pregnancies and fostering positive
parent & child relationship.
● ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY: sustainable reproductive health
practices are, such as family planning, can help reduce the environmental
impacts of population growth by reducing resource consumption and
environmental decay.