What are soil colloids?

The colloidal state refers to a two-phase system in which one material in a very

finely divided state is dispersed through second phase. The examples are: Solid in

liquid (Dispersion of clay in water) and Liquid in gas (Fog or clouds in

atmosphere).

The clay fraction of the soil contains particles less than 0.002 mm in size.

Particles less than 0.001 mm size possess colloidal properties and are known as

soil colloids.
What are soil colloids?

• Clay (mineral matter) and humus (organic matter)

• These are very small fragments of rock and organic

matter.

• They are electrically charged and their smaller size

provides enormous surface area. Such properties
makes them highly reactive.
 Properties of soil colloids

• Size
• Surface area
• Surface charges
• Adsorption of cations &
anions
• Adsorption of water
• Cohesion
• Adhesion
• Swelling and shrinkage
• Brownian movement
 General Properties of Soil Colloids

1. Size: Inorganic and organic colloids are extremely small size - smaller than 2
micrometers in diameter. These particles cannot be seen using an ordinary light
microscope but can be seen only with an electron microscope.
2. Surface area: Because of their small size, all soil colloids have a larger
external surface area per unit mass. The external surface area of 1 g of
colloidal clay is 1000 times that of 1 g of coarse sand. The total surface area of
soil colloids ranges from 10 m2/g for clays with only external surfaces to more than
800 m2/g for clays with extensive internal surfaces.
3. Surface charges: Both external and internal surfaces of soil colloids carry
negative and/or positive charges. Most of the organic and inorganic soil colloids
carry a negative charge.
The sources of negative charge on clays comes from
i) Ionizable hydrogen ions
ii) Isomorphous substitution
4. Adsorption of cations: As soil colloids possess negative charge they attract
and attach the ions of positive charge on the colloidal surfaces. They attract
cations like H+, A13+, Ca2+ and Mg2+. This gives rise to an ionic double layer.
5. Adsorption of water: A large number of water molecules are associated with
soil colloidal particles. Some water molecules are attracted to the adsorbed cations
and the cation is said to be in hydrated state. Others water molecules are held in the
internal surfaces of the colloidal clay particles. These water molecules play a
critical role in determining both the physical and chemical properties of soil.
6. Cohesion: (Attractive force between similar molecules or materials).
Cohesion indicates the tendency of clay particles to stick together. This tendency is
due to the attraction of clay particles for water molecules held between them.
7. Adhesion: (Attractive force between different molecules or materials).
Adhesion refers to the attraction of colloida1 materials to the surface of any other
body or substance with which it comes in contact.
8. Swelling and shrinkage: Some soil clay colloids belonging to smectite group like
Montmorillonite swell when wet and shrink when dry. After a prolonged dry spell, soils high
in smectite clay (e.g. Black soil-Vertisols) often show crises-cross wide and deep cracks.
9. Dispersion and flocculation: As long as the colloidal particles remain negatively charged,
they repel each other and the suspension remains stable. If on any account they loose their
charge, or if the magnitude of the charge is reduced, the particles coalesce, form flock or loose
aggregates, and settle down. This phenomenon of coalescence and formation of flocks is known
as flocculation. The reverse process of the breaking up of flocks into individual particles is
known as de-flocculation or dispersion.
10. Brownian movement: When a suspension of colloidal particles is examined under a
microscope the particles seem to oscillate. The oscillation is due to the collision of colloidal
particles or molecules with those of the liquid in which they are suspended. The smaller
the particle, the more rapid is its movement.
11. Non permeability: Colloids are unable to pass through a semi-permeable membrane. Even
though the colloidal particles are extremely small, they are bigger than molecules of crystalloid
dissolved in water.
ORIGIN OF CHARGE ON SOIL COLLOIDS
The two properties that mostly account for the reactivity of soils are surface area and surface
charge. Surface area is the direct result of particle size and shape. Charge development in
soils is intimately associated with clay sized particles and humus.
Two types of charge arises on inorganic colloids i.e., permanent charge or constant
charge, temporary charge or variable charge.
Permanent charge
Isomorphous substitution: Substitution of one ion with another ion of comparable size
(within 15 % ) and charge variation of one unit without disturbing the crystal lattice. The
weathering of wide variety of rocks and minerals permits cations of comparable size to
substitute for silicon, alluminum and magnesium ions in the respective tetrahedral and
octahedral sheets. Aluminum (0.051 nm) is only slightly larger than silicon (0.042 nm).
Consequently the aluminum can fit in to the centre of the tetrahedron in the place of the
silicon without changing the basic structure of the crystal. This process is called
“Isomorphous substitution”, which is common and accounts for the wide variability in the
nature of silicate clays. Isomorphous substitution also occurs in the octahedral sheet. Iron
(Fe3+ -0.064 nm) and zinc (0.074 nm (Fe2+ 0.070 nm) can fit in to the position of either
aluminum or magnesium (0.06), as a central ion in the octahedral sheet. Isomorphous
substitution is responsible for development of permanent charge on inorganic colloids. If
Al3+ ion substitutes for Mg2+ ion, a net positive charge results. Such positive charges are
characteristic of the trioctahedral sheet in some vermiculites and chlorites.
TEMPORARY CHARGE ON COLLOIDS
It is the second source of charge on some silicate clays (kaolinite) and on humus, allophone
and Fe, Al hydroxides. Because these charges are “pH dependant”, they are termed “variable,
temporary and pH dependant” charges.
The positive charge developed at low pH and the excess negative charge developed at high
pH, are collectively known as pH dependent charges. The soil’s total charge is the algebraic
sum of its positive and negative charges.
The zero point charge (ZPC) has been used as on index of the positive and negative
charges on soil colloids. The ZPC is the pH at which negative and positive charges of a
colloid are equal.
Types of soil colloids
 Types of soil colloids
• Crystalline silicate clays:– Kaolinite, smectite, montmorillonite

• Non crystalline silicate clays:– Allophane and Imogolite

• Iron & aluminum oxides:– Gibbsite and Goethite

• Organic (humus)
Humus (Organic Colloid):
 Humus is amorphous, dark brown to black, nearly insoluble in water, but
mostly soluble in dilute alkali (NaOH or KOH) solutions. It is a temporary
intermediate product left after considerable decomposition of plant and animal
remains. They are temporary intermediate because the organic substances remain
continue to decompose slowly. The humus is often referred to as an organic
colloid and consists of various chains and loops of linked carbon atoms. The
humus colloids are not crystalline. They are composed basically of carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen rather than of silicon, aluminum, iron, oxygen, and
hydroxyl groups.
 The negative charges of humus are associated with partially dissociated enolic (-
OH), carboxyl (-COOH), and phenolic groups; these groups in turn are
associated with central units of varying size and complexity.
 Layer silicate clays – Genesis and classification
Genesis of Clay Minerals
 The silicate clays are developed from the weathering of a wide variety of minerals by the
two distinct process
1. Alteration- A slight physical and chemical alteration of certain primary minerals.
Changes in particle size. Alteration of muscovite mica to fine grained mica is the good
example. As weathering occurs muscovite mineral is broken down in size to the colloidal
range, part of the potassium is lost and some silicon is added from weathering solutions. The
fine mica colloid has a 2:1 structure, only have been altered in this process.
2. Recrystallization- Decomposition of primary minerals with subsequent
recrystallization of certain of their products in to the silicate clays
Complete breakdown of clay structures and re-crystallization of clay minerals from product of
this breakdown. It is the result of much more intense weathering than that required for
alteration. Formation of Kaolinite (1:1) from the breakdown of the primary minerals having
2:1 type structure.
 Relative stages of weathering
 The contact of rocks and water produces clays, either at or near the surface of the
earth”.
Rock + Water Clay

 The CO2 gas can dissolve in water and form carbonic acid, which will become

hydrogen ions H+ and bicarbonate ions, and make water slightly acidic.
CO2 + H2O H2CO3 H+ + HCO3
 The acidic water will react with the rock surfaces and tend to dissolve the K ion
and silica from the feldspar. Finally, the feldspar is transformed into kaolinite.
Feldspar + hydrogen ions + water clay (kaolinite) + cations, dissolved silica
2KAlSi3O8+2H+ + H2O Al2Si2O5(OH)4 + 2K+ + 4SiO2
 Fine grained micas and magnesium rich chlorites represent earlier weathering
stages of the silicates and kaolinite and ultimately iron and aluminum oxides
themost advanced stages
 Layer silicate clays

 These important silicate clays are also known as phyllosilicates (Phyllon -

leaf) because of their leaf-like or plate like structure.
 These are made up of two kinds of horizontal sheets. One dominated by
silicon and other by aluminum and/or magnesium.
Silica tetrahedron: The basic building block for the silica-dominated sheet is a unit
composed of one silicon atom surrounded by four oxygen atoms. It is called the silica
tetrahedron because of its four-sided configuration. An interlocking array or a series of these
silica tetrahedra tied together horizontally by shared oxygen anions gives a tetrahedral
sheet.
Alumina octahedron: Aluminium and/or magnesium ions are the key cations surrounded
by six oxygen atoms or hydroxyl group giving an eight sided building block termed
octahedron. Numerous octahedra linked together horizontally comprise the octahedral sheet.

An aluminum-dominated sheet is known as a di-octahedral sheet, whereas one dominated by

magnesium is called a tri-octahedral sheet. The distinction is due to the fact that two
aluminum ions in a di-octahedral sheet satisfy the same negative charge from surrounding
oxygen and hydroxyls as three magnesium ions in a tri-octahedral sheet.
 Classification of layer silicate clays
 On the basis of the number and arrangement of tetrahedral (silica) and octahedral
(alumina-magnesia) sheets contained in the crystal units or layers, silicate clays
are classified into three different groups
1) 1 :1 Type clay minerals
2) 2:1 Type clay minerals
3) 2: 1: 1 (or) 2:2 Type clay minerals
The basic building blocks of tetetrahedral and octahedral sheets are the silica
tetrahedron and the aluminum octahedran
1:1 type minerals:
 The layers of the1:1-type minerals are made up of one tetrahedral (silica) sheet combined
with one octahedral (alumina) sheet.
 In soils, kaolinite group is the most prominent 1:1 clay mineral, which includes kaolinite,
hallosite, nacrite and dickite.
 The tetrahedral and octahedral sheets in a layer of a kaolinite crystal are held together
tightly by oxygen atoms, which are mutually shared by the silicon and aluminum cations
in their respective sheets.
 These layers are held together by hydrogen bonding.
 Consequently, the structure is fixed and no expansion ordinarily occurs between layers
when the clay is wetted.
 Cations and water do not enter between the structural layers of a 1:1 type mineral particle.
 Little isomorphous substitution in 1:1 type mineral.
 Because of low surface area and little isomorphous substitution the capacity to adsorb
cations is also low.
 Kaolinite crystals usually are hexagonal in shape.

 Kaolinite exhibits very little plasticity (capability of being molded),

cohesion, shrinkage, and swelling.
2:1-Type Minerals:
 The crystal units (layers) of these minerals are characterized by an octahedral
sheet sandwiched between two tetrahedral sheets. Three general groups have
this basic crystal structure.
 Expanding type: Smectite group and vermiculite
 Non-expanding type: mica group (illite)
Expanding Minerals: The smectite group of minerals is noted for their interlayer
expansion and swelling when wetted. The water enters the interlayer space and
forces the layers apart.
 Montmorillonite is the most prominent member of this group in soils. Beidellite,
nontronite, and saponite are also found in soils.
 The flake-like crystals of smectite. Each layer is made up of an octahedral sheet
sandwiched between two tetrahedral (silica) sheets.
 In montmorillonite, magnesium replaces replaced aluminum in some sites of
octahedral sheet. Likewise, some silicon atoms in the tetrahedral sheet may be
replaced by aluminum. These substitutions give rise to a negative charge.
 These minerals show high cation exchange capacity, swelling and shrinkage
properties. Wide cracks commonly form in smectite dominated soils (e.g.,
Vertisols) when dried. The dry aggregates or clods are very hard, making such
soils difficult to till.
Vermiculites are also 2:1 type minerals in that an octahedral sheet occurs between
two tetrahedral sheets.
 In most soils vermiculites, the octahedral sheet is aluminum dominated (di-octahedral),
although magnesium dominated (tri-octahedral) vermiculites are also present.
 In the tetrahedral sheet of most vermiculite, aluminum is substituted by silicon in most
of the sites. This accounts for most of the very high net negative charge associated with
these minerals.
 Water molecules, along with magnesium and other ions, are strongly adsorbed in the
interlayer space of vermiculites. They act primarily as bridges holding the units together
rather than as wedges driving them apart.
 The degree of swelling is, therefore considerable less for vermiculites than for smectite.
For this reason, vermiculites are considered limited expansion clay minerals, expanding
more than kaolinite but much less than the smectite.
 The cation exchange capacity (CEC) of vermiculite is higher than all other silicate clays,
including montmorillonite and other smectite because of very high negative charge in the
tetrahedral sheet.
2:1 Non-expanding minerals: Micas are the type minerals in this group. (e.g.)
Muscovite and biotite.
 The major source of charge is in the tetrahedral sheet where aluminum atoms
occupy about 20 % of the silicon sites.
 This result in a net negative charge in the tetrahedral sheet and the charge is
higher than that found in vermiculites.
 To satisfy this charge, potassium ions are strongly attracted in the interlayer space
and are just the right size to fit into spaces in the adjoining tetrahedral sheets. The
potassium thereby acts as a binding agent, preventing expansion of the crystal.
Hence, fine-grained micas are quite nonexpanding.
 The hydration, cation adsorption, swelling and shrinkage and plasticity are less
intense in fine grained micas than in smectite but are more than kaolinite due to
the presence of interstratified layers of smectite or vermiculite. Fine grained mica
crystals are intermediate in size between the smectite and kaolinite.
2:1:1 Type Minerals: This silicate group is represented by chlorites.
 Chlorites are basically iron magnesium silicates with some aluminum present.
 In a typical chlorite clay crystal, 2:1 layers, such as in vermiculites, alternate with
a magnesium dominated tri-octahedral sheet, giving a 2:1:1 ratio.
 Magnesium also dominates the tri-octahedral sheet in the 2:1 layer of chlorites.
Thus, the crystal unit contains two silica tetrahedral sheets and two magnesium-
dominated tri-octahedral sheets giving rise to the term 2:1:1 or 2:2 type
structure.
 The negative charge of chlorites is about the same as that of fine grained mica and
less than smectite or vermiculites. Particle size and surface area for chlorites are
also about the same as for fine grained micas.
 There is no water adsorption between the chlorite crystal units, which accounts
for the non expanding nature of this mineral.
2. Iron and aluminum oxide clays (sesquioxide clays):
 Under conditions of extensive leaching by rainfall and long time intensive
weathering of minerals in warm humid climates, most of the silica and alumina
in primary minerals are dissolved and slowly leached away.
 The remnant materials, which have lower solubility are called sesquioxides.

Sesquioxides are mixtures of aluminum hydroxide, Al(OH)3, and iron oxide,

Fe2O3, or iron hydroxide, Fe(OH)3.

 The Latin word sesqui means one and one-half times, meaning one and one-
half times more oxygen than Al and Fe.
 Examples of iron and aluminum oxides common in soils are gibbsite

(Al2O3.3H2O) and geothite (Fe2O3.H2O).

 These clays do not swell, not sticky and have high phosphorus adsorption
capacity.
Allophane and other amorphous minerals:
 These silicate clays are mixtures of silica and alumina.
 They are amorphous in nature. These are structurally disordered aluminosilicates.
They are derived from volcanic ash materials and constitute a major component
of volacnic soils.
 These clays have high anion exchange capacity or even high cation exchange
capacity.
 These clays have a variable charge that depends on H+ in solution (the soil
acidity).
 Significance of soil colloids

The organic and inorganic contaminats are often transported via colloidal particles.
Majority of surface area and electrostatic charge in a soil resides in the less than 1
μm size fraction, with particles with radii between 20 and 1000 mm constituting the
major part of soil surface area. Since major part of the surface area is in the
colloidal fraction of the soil, almost all surface controlled processes including
adsorption reactions, nucleation and precipitation involve colloids.
In addition to these chemical processes, colloids are mobile in soils, and thus affect
not only the chemical transport of otherwise immobile chemicals, but also exert a
strong influence on soil hydraulic properties.
Major properties of Soil Colloids
Importance
• Cation and anion exchange
• Sorption of groundwater and pesticide
contamination
• Binding of biomolecules to clay and humus
Soil Organic Matter
Sources of soil organic matter:- The original source of soil organic matter is plant
tissue(leaves, roots and left outs of harvested crops). Animals are the secondary
sources of organic matter (their bodies when their life cycles are consummated)

DECOMPOSABILITY OF PLANT
RESIDUES
Sugars, Starches and simple proteins
Repid composition
1 Crude proteins
2 Hemicelluloses
3 Cellulose
4 Fats, Waxes etc.,
5 Lignins -Very slow decomposition
ORGANIC MATTER DECOMPOSITION
When organic tissue is added to soil three general reactions take place.
1 The bulk of the material undergoes enzymatic oxidation with CO2, H2O and energy and
heat as the major products.
2 The essential elements such as nitrogen, phosphorous and sulphur are released and /
or immobilized by a series of specific reactions relatively unique for each element.
3 Compounds very resistant to microbial actions are formed either through modification
of compounds in the original plant tissue or by microbial synthesis.
The native flora of soil i.e. bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes are involved in the
decomposition of organic matter. Different soil enzymes (protein substances) produced
by these microorganisms are directly responsible for the decomposition by reducing the
activation energy, necessary to breakdown the bonds of different organic materials.
An enzyme is a substance, composed of proteins that are capable of lowering the
activation energy of other selective compounds enough to allow the breaking of a
particular bond under a particular environment.
The action of enzyme to make a split easier does not use up the enzyme. An activator
that is not consumed or changed by such a process is called catalyst. Many different
enzymes are produces by a single organism and many organisms produce the same
enzyme. The simple end products of decomposition of organic matter under aerobic soil
situations are CO 2, NH4+, NO3-, H2PO4-. SO42-, H2O, resistant residues and various other
essential plant nutrients like Ca 2+, Mg2+, Fe2+, Mn2+, Zn2+, Cu2+ etc.,. Under
anaerobic conditions the end products are CH4 (swamp gas), some organic acids (R-
COOH) eg. lactic, propionic and butyric acid etc., NH4+, various amine residues (R-
NH2), toxic gas H2S and ethylene (H2C=CH2) and the resistant humus substance.
MINERALIZATION: Mineralization is the conversion of an element from an organic
form to an inorganic as a result of microbial decomposition.

Ammonification : Process of conversion of amino acids to ammonia

IMMOBILIZATION: The conversion of the element from the inorganic to the

organic form in microbial tissues or in plant tissues, thus rendering the element not
readily available to other organisms or to plants, is called immobilization.